References
- ADAMS , M. A. and HUTTON , W. C. 1981 . The relevance of torsion to the mechanical derangement of the lumar spine . Spine , 6 : 241 – 248 .
- DUNCAN , N. A. and AHMED , A. M. 1991 . The role of axial rotation in the actiology of unilateral disc prolapse. An experimental and fine element analysis . Spine , 16 : 1089 – 1098 .
- FARFAN , H. F. , COSSETTE , J. W. , ROBERTSON , G. H. , WELLS , R. V. and KRAUS , H. 1970 . The effects of torsion on the lumbar intervertebral joints: the role of torsion in the production of disc degeneration . Journal of Bone Joint Surgery (Am) , 52 : 468 – 497 .
- FRASER , M. and WELLS , R. Measurement of low-back strength in torsion . Proceedings of the 21st Annual Conference of the Human Factors Association of Canada . Toronto, Canada. pp. 179 – 182 . Santa Monica, CA : Human Factors Association .
- FRYMOYER , J. W. , POPE , M. H. , COSTANZA , M. C. , ROSEN , J. C. , GOGGEN , J. F. and WILDER , D. G. 1980 . Epidemiologic studies of low-back pain . Spine , 5 : 419 – 423 .
- FRYMOYER , J. W. , POPE , M. H. , CLEMENTS , J. H. , WILDER , D. G. , MCPHEARSON , B. and ASHIKAGA , T. 1983 . Risk factors in low-back pain: an epidemiologic study . Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery , 65a : 213 – 218 .
- HINDLE , R. J. and PEARCY , M. J. 1989 . Rotational mobility of the human back in forward flexion . Journal of Biomedical Engineering , 11 : 219 – 233 .
- HINDLE , R. J. , PEARCY , M. J. , CROSS , A. T. and MILLER , D. H. T. 1990 . Three-dimensional kinematics of the human back . Clinical Biomechanics , 5 : 218 – 228 .
- KUMAR , S. 1991 . Functional evaluation of the human back. A research report 393
- KUMAR , S. 1991b . Arm lift strength in work space . Applied Ergonomics , 22 : 317 – 328 .
- KUMAR , S. An electromyographic study of unresisted trunk rotation with normal velocity among normal males . Proceedings of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers . October 28–31 . San Diego : Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society) .
- KUMAR , S. 1994a . A functional evaluation of human back . European Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation , 4 : 73 – 82 .
- KUMAR , S. 1994b . The epidemiology and functional evaluation of low-back pain . literature review, European Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation , 4 : 15 – 27 .
- KUMAR , S. 1996a . Isolated planar trunk strength and mobility measurement for impaired and normal backs: Part I—The devices . International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics , 17 : 81 – 90 .
- KUMAR , S. 1996b . Isolated planar trunk strength and mobility measurement for impaired and normal backs: Part II—Protocol and software logic . International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics , 17 : 91 – 101 .
- KUMAR , S. 1996c . Isolated planar trunk strength measurement in normals: Part III—Results and database . International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics , 17 : 103 – 111 .
- KUMAR , S. and GARAND , D. 1992 . Static and dynamic lifting strength at different reach distances in symmetrical and asymmetrical planes . Ergonomics , 35 : 861 – 880 .
- KUMAR , S. , CHAFFIN , D. B. and REDFERN , M. 1988 . Isometric and isokinetic back and arm lifting strengths: device and measurements . Journal of Biomechanics , 21 : 35 – 44 .
- KUMAR , S. , DUFRESNE , R. and VAN SCHOOR , T. 1995a . Human trunk strength profile in isolated movements: a measure of function, Part I: Flexion and extension . Spine , 20 : 160 – 168 .
- KUMAR , S. , DUFRESNE , R. and VAN SCHOOR , T. 1995b . Human trunk strength profile in isolated movements: a measure of function, Part II: Lateral flexion and axial rotation . Spine , 20 : 169 – 177 .
- KUMAR , S. , NARAYAN , Y. and ZEDKA , M. 1996 . An electromyographic study of unresisted trunk rotation with normal velocity among healthy subjects . Spine , 21 : 1500 – 1512 .
- LIU , Y. K. , GOEL , V. K. , DEJONG , A. , NJUS , G. , NISHIYAMA , K. and BUEKWALTER , J. 1985 . Torsional fatigue of lumbar intervertebral joints . Spine , 10 : 894 – 900 .
- MANNING , D. P. , MITCHELL , R. G. and BLANCHFIELD , L. P. 1984 . Body movements and events contributing to accidental and non-accidental back injuries . Spine , 9 : 734 – 749 .
- MARRAS , W. , LAVENDER , S. , LEURGANS , S. , RAJULU , S. , ALLREAD , W. G. , FATHALLAH , F. A. and FERGUSON , S. A. 1993 . The role of dynamic three-dimensional trunk motion in occupationally-related low-back disorders . Spine , 18 : 617 – 628 .
- NEWTON , M. and WADDELL , G. 1993 . Trunk strength testing with iso-machines Part I: Review of a decade of scientific evidence . Spine , 18 : 801 – 811 .
- PARNIANPOUR , M. , NORDIN , M. , KAHANOVITZ , N. and FRANKEL , V. 1988 . The triaxial coupling of torque generation of trunk muscles during isometric exertions and the effect of fatiguing isoinertial movements on the motor output and movement patterns . Spine , 13 : 982 – 992 .
- PEARCY , M. J. 1993 . Twisting mobility of the human back in flexed postures . Spine , 18 : 114 – 119 .
- POPE , M. H. , SVENSONN , M. , ANDERSSON , G. B. J. , BROMAN , H. and ZETTERBERG , C. 1987 . The role of prerotation of the trunk in axial twisting efforts . Spine , 12 : 1041 – 1045 .
- RALSTON , H. J. , INMAN , V. T. , STRAIT , L. A. and SHAFFRATH , M. D. 1974 . Mechanics of human isolated voluntary muscle . American Journal of Physiology , 151 : 612 – 620 .
- SHIRAZI-ADL , A. , AHMED , A. M. and SHRIVASTAVA , S. C. 1986 . Mechanical response of a lumbar motion segment in axial torque alone and combined with compression . Spine , 11 : 914 – 927 .
- SMITH , S. S. , MAYER , T. G. , GATCHEL , R. J. and BECKER , T. J. 1985 . Quantification of lumbar function, Part I . Spine , 10 : 757 – 764 .
- SNOOK , S. H. , CAMPANELLI , R. A. and HART , J. W. 1978 . A study of three preventive approaches to low-back injury . Journal of Occupational Medicine , 20 : 478 – 481 .
- SNOOK , S. H. , CAMPANELLA , R. A. and HART , J. W. 1980 . A study of back injuries at Pratt and Whitney Aircraft , Hopkinton, MA : Liberty Mutual Insurance Corp .
- US DEPARTMENT OF LABOR . 1982 . Back injuries associated with lifting . Bullet , 2144
- WESSEL , J. , FORD , D. and VAN DRIESUM , D. 1994 . Torque of trunk flexion and trunk flexion with axial rotation in healthy men and women . Spine , 19 : 329 – 334 .