Current techniques for assessing physical exposure to work-related musculoskeletal risks, with emphasis on posture-based methods

References

• AARÅS , A. and STRANDEN , E. 1988 . Measurement of postural angles during work . Ergonomics , 31 : 935 – 944 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AARÅS , A. , VEIERØD , M. B. , LARSEN , S. , ØRTENGREN , R. and RO , O. 1996 . Reproducibility and stability of normalized EMG measurements on musculus trapezius . Ergonomics , 39 : 171 – 185 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ADELSTEIN , B. D. , JOHNSTON , E. R. and ELLIS , S. R. 1996 . Dynamic-response of electromagnetic spatial displacement trackers . Presence — Teleoperators and Virtual Environments , 5 : 302 – 318 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ANDERSSON , G. B. J. 1980 . “ The load on the lumbar spine in sitting postures ” . In Human Factors in Transport Research , Edited by: Oborne , D. J. and Levis , J. A. 231 – 239 . New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• ANDERSSON , G. B. J. 1982 . Measurements of load on the lumbar spine. Symposium on Idiopathic Low Back Pain , 220 – 251 . St. Louis : Mosby .
   Google Scholar
• ANDERSSON , G. B. J. , ORTENGREN , R. and HERBERTS , P. 1977 . Quantitative electromyographic studies of back muscle activity related to posture and loading . Orthopedic Clinics of North America , 8 : 85 – 96 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ARMSTRONG , T. J. 1986 . “ Upper-extremity posture: definition, measurement and control ” . In The Ergonomics of Working Postures , Edited by: Corlett , N. , Wilson , J. and Manenica , I. 59 – 73 . London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• ARMSTRONG , T. J. , BUCKLE , P. , FINE , L. J. , HAGBERG , M. , JONSSON , B. , KILBOM , Å. , KUORINKA , I. A. A. , SILVERSTEIN , B. A. , SJOGAARD , G. and VIIKARI-JUNTURA , E. R. A. 1993 . A conceptual model for work-related neck and upper-limb musculoskeletal disorders . Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health , 19 : 73 – 84 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ARMSTRONG , T. J. , FOULKE , J. A. , JOSEPH , B. S. and GOLDSTEIN , S. A. 1982 . Investigation of cumulative trauma disorders in a poultry processing plant . American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal , 43 : 103 – 116 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BALUYUT , R. , GENAIDY , A. M. , DAVIS , L. S. , SHELL , R. L. and SIMMONS , R. J. 1995 . Use of visual perception in estimating static postural stresses: magnitudes and sources of errors . Ergonomics , 38 : 1841 – 1850 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BAUMAN , M. D. , PLAMONDON , A. and GAGNON , D. 1998 . Comparative assessment of 3D joint marker sets for the biomechanical analysis of occupational tasks . International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics , 21 : 475 – 482 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BENDIX , T. and HAGBERG , M. 1984 . Trunk posture and load on the trapezius muscle whilst sitting at sloping desks . Ergonomics , 27 : 873 – 882 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BERNARD , B. , PUTZ-ANDERSON , V. , GRANT , K. , HURRELL , J. , SWEENEY , M. H. , TANAKA , S. and FINE , L. 1997 . “ NIOSH's review of the epidemiologic evidence of work-related musculoskeletal disorders: use, standards and guidelines ” . In From Experience to Innovation, IEA'97, Tampere, Finland , Vol. 3 , 489 – 492 . Helsinki : Finnish Institute of Occupational Health .
   Google Scholar
• BERNARD , B. , SAUTER , S. , FINE , L. , PETERSEN , M. and HALES , T. 1994 . Job task and psychosocial risk factors for work-related musculoskeletal disorders among newspaper employees . Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health , 20 : 417 – 426 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BIGOS , S. J. , BATTIE , M. C. , SPENGLER , D. M. , FISHER , L. D. , FORDYCE , W. E. , HANSSON , T. H. , NACHEMSON , A. L. and WORTLEY , M. D. 1991 . A prospective study of work perceptions and psychosocial factors aOEecting the report of back injury . Spine , 16 : 1 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BONGERS , P. M. , DE WINTER , C. R. , KOMPIER , M. A. J. and HILDEBRANDT , V. H. 1993 . Psychosocial factors at work and musculoskeletal disease . Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health , 19 : 297 – 312 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BORG , G. 1985 . An Introduction to Borg's RPE-Scale , Ithaca, NY : Movement Publications .
   Google Scholar
• BORG , G. 1990 . Psychophysical scaling with applications in physical work and the perception of exertion . Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health , 16 : 55 – 58 . suppl.1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckle , P. and Li , G. User needs in exposure assessment for musculoskeletal risk assessment . Virtual Proceedings of Cyberg 1996: The First International Cyberspace Conference on Ergonomics . Edited by: Straker , L. and Pollock , C. Curtin University of Technology .
   Google Scholar
• BUCKLE , P. and LI , G. A practical approach to musculoskeletal risk assessment in the real workplace . From Experience to Innovation. Proceedings of the 13th Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association . 29 June-4 July , Tampere, Finland. Edited by: Seppälä , P. , Luopajärvi , T. , Nygård , C. and Mattila , M. Vol. 4 , pp. 138 – 140 . Helsinki : Finnish Institute of Occupational Health .
   Google Scholar
• BURDORF , A. 1992 . Exposure assessment of risk factors for disorders of the back in occupational epidemiology . Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health , 18 : 1 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BURDORF , A. 1995 . Reducing random measurement error in assessing postural load on the back in epidemiologic surveys . Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health , 21 : 15 – 23 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BURDORF , A. and LAAN , J. 1991 . Comparison of methods for the assessment of postural load on the back . Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health , 17 : 425 – 429 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BURDORF , A. , DERKSEN , J. , NAAKTGEBOREN , B. and VAN RIEL , M. 1992 . Measurement of trunk bending during work by direct observation and continuous measurement . Applied Ergonomics , 23 : 263 – 267 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BURTON , A. K. 1986 . Regional lumbar sagittal mobility: measurement by flexicurves . Clinical Biomechanics , 1 : 20 – 26 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BURTON , A. K. , TILLOTSON , K. M. and TROUP , J. D. G. 1989 . Prediction of low-back trouble frequency in a working population . Spine , 14 : 939 – 946 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHAFFIN , D. B. 1973 . Localized muscle fatigue — definition and measurement . Journal of Occupational Medicine , 15 : 346 – 354 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• CHAFFIN , D. B. and ANDERSSON , G. B. J. , eds. 1991 . Occupational Biomechanics , New York : John Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• CHAO , E. Y. 1978 . “ Experimental methods for biomechanical measurements of joint kinematics ” . In CRC Handbook for Engineering in Medicine and Biology , Edited by: Feinberg , B. N. and Fleming , D. G. Vol. 1 , 385 – 411 . Cleveland, OH : CRC Press .
   Google Scholar
• CHEN , J. G. , PEACOCK , J. B. and SCHLEGEL , R. E. 1989 . An observational technique for physical work stress analysis . International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics , 3 : 167 – 176 .
   Google Scholar
• CHRISTMANSSON , M. The HAMA-method: a new method for analysis of upper limb movements and risk for work-related musculoskeletal disorders . Proceedings of the 12th Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association/Human Factors Association of Canada . August , Toronto. pp. 173 – 175 . Mississauga : Human Factors Association of Canada .
   Google Scholar
• COLOMBINI , D. , OCCHIPINTI , E. , MOLTENI , G. , GRIECO , A. , PEDOTTI , A. , BOCCARDI , S. , FRIGO , C. and MENONI , O. 1985 . Posture analysis . Ergonomics , 28 : 275 – 284 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CORLETT , E. N. 1995 . “ The evaluation of posture and its effects ” . In Evaluation of Human Work , 2nd edn , Edited by: Wilson , J. R. and Corlett , E. N. 662 – 713 . London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• CORLETT , E. N. and BISHOP , R. P. 1976 . A technique for assessing postural discomfort . Ergonomics , 19 : 175 – 182 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CORLETT , E. N. and EKLUND , J. A. E. The measurement of spinal loads arising from working seats . Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 27th Annual Meeting . pp. 786 – 789 . Santa Monica, CA : Human Factors Society .
   Google Scholar
• CORLETT , E. N. , MADELEY , S. J. and MANENICA , I. 1979 . Posture targetting: a technique for recording working postures . Ergonomics , 22 : 357 – 366 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• COX , T. and MACKAY , C. J. 1985 . The measurement of self reported stress and arousal . British Journal of Psychology , 76 : 183 – 186 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DE LOOZE , M. P. , TOUSSAINT , H. M. , ENSINK , J. , MANGNUS , C. and VAN DER BEEK , A. J. 1994 . The validity of visual observation to assess posture in a laboratory-simulated, manual material handling task . Ergonomics , 37 : 1335 – 1343 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DICKINSON , C. E. , CAMPION , K. , FOSTER , A. F. , NEWMAN , S. J. , O'ROURKE , A. M. T. and THOMAS , P. G. 1992 . Questionnaire development: an examination of the Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire . Applied Ergonomics , 23 : 197 – 201 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DRURY , C. G. and COURY , B. G. 1982 . A methodology for chair evaluations . Applied Ergonomics , 13 : 195 – 202 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DUNCAN , J. and FERGUSON , D. 1974 . Keyboard operating posture and symptoms in operating . Ergonomics , 17 : 651 – 662 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EHARA , Y. , FUJIMOTO , H. , MIYAZAKI , S. , TANAKA , S. and YAMAMOTO , S. 1995 . Comparison of the performance of 3 D camera systems . Gait & Posture , 3 : 166 – 169 .
   Google Scholar
• EKLUND , J. 1996 . “ Conflicts and harassment as risk factors for musculoskeletal shoulder problems ” . In Contemporary Ergonomics 1996 , Edited by: Robertson , S. A. 227 – 232 . London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• FAHRENBERG , J. , FOERSTER , F. , SMEJA , M. and MÜLLER , W. 1997 . Assessment of posture and motion by multichannel piezoresistive accelerometer recordings . Psychophysiology , 34 : 607 – 612 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FAHRENBERG , J. , MÜLLER , W. , FOERSTER , F. and SMEJA , M. 1996 . A multichannel investigation of physical activity . Journal of Psychophysiology , 10 : 209 – 217 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FITZGERALD , J. D. 1972 . Changes in spinal stature following brief periods of static shoulder loading , Institute of Aviation Medicine Report No. 514 Farnborough
   Google Scholar
• FLEISCHER , A. G. and BECKER , G. 1986 . Free hand-movements during the performance of a complex task . Ergonomics , 29 : 49 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FLEISCHER , A. G. and LANGE , W. 1983 . Analysis of hand movements during the performance of positioning tasks . Ergonomics , 26 : 555 – 564 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FRANK , J. S. and EARL , E. M. 1990 . Coordination of posture and movement . Physical Therapy , 70 : 855 – 863 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FRANSSON-HALL , C. , GLORIA , R. , KILBOM , Å. , WINKEL , J. , KARLQVIST , L. and WIKTORIN , C. 1995 . A portable ergonomic observation method (PEO) for computerized on-line recording of postures and manual handling . Applied Ergonomics , 26 : 93 – 100 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GENAIDY , A. M. , AL-SHEDI , A. A. and KARWOWSKI , W. 1994 . Postural stress analysis in industry . Applied Ergonomics , 25 : 77 – 87 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GERR , F. , LETZ , R. and LANDRIGAN , P. J. 1991 . Upper-extremity musculoskeletal disorders of occupational origin . Annual Review of Public Health , 12 : 543 – 566 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GIL , H. J. C. and TUNES , E. 1989 . Posture recording: a model for sitting posture . Applied Ergonomics , 20 : 53 – 57 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GOLDMAN , J. and NADLER , G. 1956 . Electronics for measuring human motions . Science , 124 : 807 – 810 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GRAF , M. , GUGGENBÜHL , U. and KRUEGER , H. 1991 . “ Movement dynamics of sitting behaviour during different activities ” . In Designing for Everyone , Edited by: Quéinnec , Y. and Daniellou , F. 15 – 17 . London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• HAGBERG , M. 1988 . “ Occupational musculoskeletal disorders – a new epidemiological challenge? ” . In Progress in Occupational Epidemiology , Edited by: Hogstedt , C. and Reuterwall , C. 15 – 26 . Amsterdam : Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• HANNAH , R. E. , FOORT , J. , COUSINS , S. J. and COOPER , D. Gait analysis and the C.A.R.S.U.B.C electrogoniometer . International Electrical and Electronics Conference . Toronto.
   Google Scholar
• HIGNETT , S. 1994 . “ Using computerised OWAS for postural analysis of nursing work ” . In Contemporary Ergonomics 1994 , Edited by: Robertson , S. A. 253 – 258 . London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• HINDLE , R. J. , PEARCY , M. J. , CROSS , A. T. and MILLER , D. H. T. 1990 . Three-dimensional kinematics of the human back . Clinical Biomechanics , 5 : 218 – 228 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HOLZMANN , P. 1982 . ARBAN-A new method for analysis of ergonomic effort . Applied Ergonomics , 13 : 82 – 86 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HSE . 1990 . Work Related Upper Limb Disorders. A Guide to Prevention , London : HMSO .
   Google Scholar
• HSIAO , H. and KEYSERLING , W. M. 1990 . A three-dimensional ultrasonic system for posture measurement . Ergonomics , 33 : 1089 – 1114 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HSIAO , H. and KEYSERLING , W. M. 1991 . Evaluating posture behaviour during seated tasks . International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics , 8 : 313 – 334 .
   Google Scholar
• HÜNTING , W. , LAUBLE , T. H. and GRANDJEAN , E. 1980 . “ Constrained postures of VDU operators ” . In Ergonomic Aspects of Visual Display Terminals , Edited by: Grandjean , E. and Vigliani , E. 175 – 184 . London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• JAFRY , T. and HASLEGRAVE , C. M. 1992 . “ The development of a precision seated stadiometer for measuring the effects of vibration on the human spine ” . In Contemporary Ergonomics 1992 , Edited by: Lovesey , E. J. 79 – 84 . London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• JAKOBSSON , M. Assessment of the work place by workers and observer: a comparison . Paper presented at Advances in Industrial Ergonomics and Safety V . Copenhagen. pp. 149 – 153 .
   Google Scholar
• JARRETT , M. D. , ANDREWS , B. J. and PAUL , J. P. 1974 . Quantitative analysis of locomotion using television. World Congress of ISPO Montreux, , Switzerland
   Google Scholar
• JOHNSON , G. R. and ANDERSON , J. M. 1990 . Measurement of three-dimensional shoulder movement by an electromagnetic sensor . Clinical Biomechanics , 5 : 131 – 136 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JUUL-KRISTENSEN , B. , FALLENTIN , N. and EKDAHL , C. 1997 . Criteria for classification of posture in repetitive work by observation methods: a review . International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics , 19 : 397 – 411 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KANT , I. , NOTERMANS , J. H. V. and BORM , P. J. A. 1990 . Observations of working postures in garages using the Ovako Working Posture Analysing System (OWAS) and consequent workload reduction recommendations . Ergonomics , 33 : 209 – 220 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KARHU , O. , HÄRKÖEN , R. , SORVALI , P. and VEPSÄLÄINEN , P. 1981 . Observing working postures in industry: examples of OWAS application . Applied Ergonomics , 12 : 13 – 17 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KARHU , O. , KANSI , P. and KUORINKA , I. 1977 . Correcting working postures in industry: a practical method for analysis . Applied Ergonomics , 8 : 199 – 201 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KARPOVICH , P. V. , HERDEN , E. L. and ASA , M. M. 1960 . Electrogoniometric study of joints . United States Armed Forces Medical Journal , 11 : 424 – 450 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• KATTAN , A. and NADLER , G. 1969 . Equations of hand motion path for work space design . Human Factors , 11 : 123 – 130 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KEEGAN , J. J. 1962 . Evaluation and improvement of seats . Industrial Medicine and Surgery , 31 : 471 – 477 .
   Google Scholar
• KEMMLERT , K. 1995 . A method assigned for the identification of ergonomic hazards — PLIBEL . Applied Ergonomics , 26 : 199 – 211 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KEMMLERT , K. and KILBOM , Å. Method for identification of musculoskeletal stress factors which may have injurious effects . XIth World Congress on the Prevention of Occupational Accidents and Diseases . Stockholm. pp. 401 – 404 .
   Google Scholar
• KEYSERLING , W. M. 1986 . Postural analysis of the trunk and shoulders in simulated real time . Ergonomics , 29 : 569 – 583 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KEYSERLING , W. M. , BROUWER , M. and SILVERSTEIN , B. A. 1992 . A checklist for evaluating ergonomic risk factors resulting from awkward postures of the legs, trunk and neck . International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics , 9 : 283 – 301 .
   Google Scholar
• KEYSERLING , W. M. , STETSON , D. S. , SILVERSTEIN , B. A. and BROUWER , M. L. 1993 . A checklist for evaluating ergonomic risk factors associated with upper extremity cumulative trauma disorders . Ergonomics , 36 : 807 – 831 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KILBOM , Å. 1994a . Repetitive work of the upper extremity: Part II — The scientific basis (knowledge base) for the guide . International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics , 14 : 59 – 86 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KILBOM , Å. 1994b . Assessment of physical exposure in relation to work-related musculoskeletal disorders — what information can be obtained from systematic observations? . Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health , 20 : 30 – 45 . special issue:
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KILBOM , Å. Repetitive work of the upper extremity: guidelines for the practitioner . From Experience to Innovation, Proceedings of the 13th Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association . 29 June-4 July , Tampere, Finland. Edited by: Seppälä , P. , Luopajärvi , T. , Nygrrd , C. H. and Mattila , M. Vol. 4 , pp. 66 – 68 . Helsinki : Finnish Institute of Occupational Health .
   Google Scholar
• KILBOM , Å. , PERSSON , J. and JONSSON , B. 1986 . “ Risk factors for work-related disorders of the neck and shoulder — with special emphasis on working postures and movements ” . In The Ergonomics of Working Postures , Edited by: orlett , E. N. C , Wilson , J. and Manenica , I. 44 – 53 . London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• KIVI , P. and MATTILA , M. 1991 . Analysis and improvement of work postures in the building industry: application of the computerised OWAS method . Applied Ergonomics , 22 : 43 – 48 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KUORINKA , I. , JONSSON , B. , KILBOM , Å. , VINTERBERG , H. , BIERING-SØRENSEN , F. , ANDERSSON , G. and JØRGEMSEM , K. 1987 . Standardised Nordic questionnaires for the analysis of musculoskeletal symptoms . Applied Ergonomics , 18 : 233 – 237 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LAMOREUX , L. W. 1971 . Kinematic measurements in the study of human walking . Bulletin of Prosthetics Research , : 10 – 15 . 3 – 84 .
   Google Scholar
• LAURSEN , B. , SOGAARD , K. and SJOGAARD , G. A dynamic 3-D link segment model applied for calculating joint torques during cleaning work . Proceedings of the 14th Congress of the International Society of Biomechanics . July . pp. 762 – 763 . Paris : ISB .
   Google Scholar
• LI , G. and BUCKLE , P. 1997 . “ The development of a practical tool for musculoskeletal risk assessment ” . In Contemporary Ergonomics 1997 , Edited by: Robertson , S. A. 442 – 447 . London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• LI , G. and BUCKLE , P. 1997 . Understanding the practitioners' behaviour when making risk assessment at workplace—A think aloud approach paper under submission
   Google Scholar
• LI , G. and BUCKLE , P. 1998 . The development of a practical method for the exposure assessment of risks to work-related musculoskeletal disorders. General report to the HSE (Contract No. R3408) , Robens Centre for Health Ergonomics, European Institute of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey .
   Google Scholar
• LI , G. , HASLEGRAVE , C. M. and CORLETT , E. N. 1995 . Factors affecting posture for machine sewing tasks: the need for changes in sewing machine design . Applied Ergonomics , 26 : 35 – 46 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LIN , M. L. , RADWIN , R. G. and SNOOK , S. H. 1997 . A single metric for quantifying biomechanical stress in repetitive motions and exertions . Ergonomics , 40 : 543 – 558 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LOEBL , W. Y. 1967 . Measurement of spinal posture and range of spinal movement . Annals of Physical Medicine , 9 : 103 – 110 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LUEDER , R. K. 1983 . Seat comfort: a review of the construct in the office environment . Human Factors , 25 : 701 – 711 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MARRAS , W. S. 1992 . Toward an understanding of dynamic variables in ergonomics . State of the Art Reviews in Occupational Medicine , 7 : 655 – 677 .
   Google Scholar
• MARRAS , W. S. , FATHALLAH , F. A. , MILLER , R. J. , DAVIS , S. W. and MIRKA , G. A. 1992 . Accuracy of a three-dimensional lumbar motion monitor for recording dynamic trunk motion characteristics . International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics , 9 : 75 – 87 .
   Google Scholar
• MAUD , P. J. and CORTEZ-COOPER , M. Y. 1995 . “ Static techniques for the evaluation of joint range of motion ” . In Physiological Assessment of Human Fitness , Edited by: Maud , P. J. and Foster , C. 221 – 243 . Champaign : Human Kinetics .
   Google Scholar
• MCATAMNEY , L. 1994 . The inter-relationship of risk factors associated with upper limb disorders in VDU users , Nottingham : University of Nottingham . PhD thesis
   Google Scholar
• MCATAMNEY , L. and CORLETT , E. N. 1993 . RULA: a survey method for the investigation of work-related upper limb disorders . Applied Ergonomics , 24 : 91 – 99 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MCATAMNEY , L. and HIGNETT , S. REBA — A rapid entire body assessment method for investigating work related musculoskeletal disorders . Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the Ergonomics Society of Australia . Edited by: Blewett , V.
   Google Scholar
• MORAY , N. , JOHANSEN , J. , PEW , R. , RASMUSSEN , J. , SANDERS , A. F. and WICKENS , C. D. 1979 . “ Report of the experimental psychology group ” . In Mental Workload: Its Theory and Measurement , Edited by: Moray , N. 105 New York : Plenum .
   Google Scholar
• MOUTON , L. J. , HOF , A. L. , DE JONGH , H. J. and EISMA , W. H. 1991 . Influence of posture on the relation between surface electromyogram amplitude and back muscle moment: consequences for the use of surface electromyogram to measure back load . Spine , 6 : 245 – 251 .
   Google Scholar
• NACHEMSON , A. and ELFSTROM , G. 1970 . Intravital dynamic pressure measurements in lumbar discs . Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine , : 3 – 38 . Suppl. 1
   Google Scholar
• NACHEMSON , A. L. , ANDERSSON , G. B. J. and SCHULTZ , A. B. 1986 . Valsalva Maneuver Biomechanics. Effects on lumbar trunk loads of elevated intraabdominal pressures . Spine , 11 : 476 – 479 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NICOL , A. C. 1989 . Measurement of joint motion . Clinical Rehabilitation , 3 : 1 – 9 .
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH . 1997 . Musculoskeletal Disorders and Workplace Factors: A Critical Review of Epidemiologic Evidence for Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders of the Neck, Upper Extremity, and Low Back , Edited by: Bernard , B. Cincinnati, OH : NIOSH . 2nd Printing
   Google Scholar
• NOLDUS , L. P. J. J. 1991 . The observer: a software system for collection and analysis of observational data . Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers , 23 : 415 – 429 .
   Google Scholar
• O'BRIEN , C. and PARADISE , M. G. A. The development of a portable non-invasive system for analysing human movement, in Old World, New World, One World . Proceedings of the 6th Congress of the International Ergonomics Association, University of Maryland . July , Maryland. pp. 390 – 392 . Santa Monica, CA : Human Factors Society .
   Google Scholar
• PARSONS , C. A. and THOMPSON , D. 1990 . “ Comparison of cervical flexion in shop assistants and data input VDT operators ” . In Contemporary Ergonomics 1990 , Edited by: Lovesey , E. J. 299 – 303 . London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• PEARCY , M. J. , GILL , J. M. , HINDLE , R. J. and JOHNSON , G. R. 1987 . Measurement of human back movements in three dimensions by opto-electronic devices . Clinical Biomechanics , 2 : 199 – 204 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PEEREBO OM , K. J. 1993 . “ A strategy for using the OVAKO working posture analysing system (OWAS) to determine the physical load of actions ” . In The Ergonomics of Manual Work , Edited by: Marras , W. S. , Karwowski , W. , Smith , J. L. Pacholski , L. 245 – 252 . London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• PERSSON , J. and KILBOM , Å. 1983 . VIRA, en enkel videofilm-teknik for registering och analys a arbetsstallningar och rorelser. Undersoknings apport , Solna, , Sweden : National Board of Occupational Safety and Health, Work Physiology Unit .
   Google Scholar
• PRIEL , V. Z. 1974 . A numerical definition of posture . Human Factors , 16 : 576 – 584 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PUNNET , L. and KEYSERLING , M. 1987 . Exposure to ergonomic stressors in the garment industry: application and critique of job-site work analysis methods . Ergonomics , 30 : 1099 – 1116 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RADWIN , R. G. and LIN , M. L. 1993 . An analytical method for characterizing repetitive motion and postural stress using spectral analysis . Ergonomics , 36 : 379 – 389 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RADWIN , R. G. , LIN , M. L. and YEN , T. Y. 1994 . Exposure assessment of biomechanical stress in repetitive manual work using frequency-weighted filters . Ergonomics , 37 : 1984 – 1998 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RANTANEN , J. 1981 . Risk assessment and the setting of priorities in occupational health and safety . Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health , 7 : 84 – 90 . Suppl. 4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RIDD , J. E. and DAVIS , P. R. Industrial human factors research in British Health and Safety Institute . Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 25th Annual Meeting . pp. 541 – 545 . Santa Monica, CA : Human Factors Society .
   Google Scholar
• RIDD , J. E. , NICHOLSON , A. S. and MONTAN , A. J. 1989 . “ A portable microcomputer based system for ‘on site’ activity and posture recording ” . In Contemporary Ergonomics 1989 , Edited by: Megaw , E. D. 366 – 371 . London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• RODGERS , M. M. , TUMMARAKOTA , S. and LIEH , J. 1998 . Three-dimensional dynamic analysis of wheelchair propulsion . Journal of Applied Biomechanics , 14 : 80 – 92 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROLFE , S. A. Infant attentional patterns during independent, mother-assisted and stranger-assisted play . 7th Australian Developmental Conference . July , Brisbane.
   Google Scholar
• ROWE , P. J. , NICOL , A. C. and KELLY , I. G. 1989 . Flexible goniometer computer system for the assessment of hip function . Clinical Biomechanics , 4 : 68 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROY , S. H. , DE LUCA , C. J. and CASAVANT , D. A. 1989 . Lumbar muscle fatigue and chronic lower back pain . Spine , 14 : 992 – 1001 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SCALET , E. 1987 . Strain and Injury, VDT Health and Safety: Issues and Solutions , Ergosyst Associates .
   Google Scholar
• SCHOLZ , J. P. 1993 . Accuracy and precision of the Peak Performance Technologies Motion Measurement System . Journal of Motor Behavior , 25 : 2 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SCHULDT , K. , EKHOLM , J. , HARMS-RINGDAHL , K. , ARBORELIUS , U. P. and NEMETH , G. 1987 . Influence of sitting postures on neck and shoulder e.m.g. during arm-hand work movements . Clinical Biomechanics , 2 : 126 – 139 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SCOTT , G. B. and LAMBE , N. R. 1996 . Working practices in a perchery system, using the OVAKO working posture analysing system (OWAS) . Applied Ergonomics , 27 : 281 – 284 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SHACKEL , B. , CHIDSEY , K. D. and SHIPLEY , P. 1969 . The assessment of chair comfort . Ergonomics , 12 : 269 – 306 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SILVERSTEIN , B. A. , FINE , L. J. and ARMSTRONG , T. J. 1986 . Hand wrist cumulative trauma disorders in industry . British Journal of Industrial Medicine , 43 : 779 – 784 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• SILVERSTEIN , B. A. , FINE , L. J. and ARMSTRONG , T. J. 1987 . Occupational factors and carpal tunnel syndrome . American Journal of Industrial Medicine , 11 : 343 – 358 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SLOBOUNOV , S. , KRAEMER , W. , SEBASTIANELLI , W. , SIMON , R. and POOLE , S. 1998 . The efficacy of modern motion tracking and computer graphics technologies in a clinical setting . Journal of Sport Rehabilitation , 7 : 20 – 32 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SLOBOUNOV , S. , SIMON , R. , SEBASTIANELLI , W. , CARLSON , A. and BUCKLEY , W. E. 1996 . Application of scientific instrumentation in a clinical setting . Journal of Sport Rehabilitation , 5 : 251 – 261 .
   Google Scholar
• SMUTZ , P. , SERINA , E. and REMPEL , D. 1994 . A system for evaluating the effect of keyboard design on force, posture, comfort, and productivity . Ergonomics , 37 : 1649 – 1660 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SODERBERG , G. L. , BLANCO , M. K. , COSENTINO , T. L. and KURDELMEIER , K. A. 1986 . An EMG analysis of posterior trunk musculature during flat and anteriorly inclined sitting . Human Factors , 28 : 483 – 491 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STERN , M. M. 1971 . A model that relates low frequency EMG power to fluctuations in the number of active motor units , Ann Arbor : University of Michigan . Unpublished PhD dissertation
   Google Scholar
• TULEN , J. H. M. , BUSSMANN , H. B. J. , VAN STEENIS , H. G. , PEPPLINKHUIZEN , L. and VELD , A. J. M. 1997 . A novel tool to quantify physical activities: ambulatory accelerometry in psychopharmacology . Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology , 17 : 202 – 207 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VAN DER BEEK , A. J. , VAN GAALEN , L. C. and FRINGS-DRESEN , M. H. W. 1992 . Working postures and activities of lorry drivers: a reliability study of on-site observation and recording on a pocket computer . Applied Ergonomics , 23 : 331 – 336 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VINK , P. Towards a field usable biomechanical typology of work . International Society of Electrophysiological Kinesiology Meeting . Baltimore. pp. 161 – 164 .
   Google Scholar
• VON STOFFERT , G. 1985 . Analyse und einstufung von körperhaltungen bei der arbeit nach der OWAS methode . Zeitschrift für Arbeitswissenschaft , 39 : 31 – 38 .
   Google Scholar
• WALKER , D. J. , HESLOP , P. S. , PLUMMER , C. J. , ESSEX , T. and CHANDLER , S. 1997 . A continuous patient activity monitor: validation and relation to disability . Physiological Measurement , 18 : 49 – 59 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WELLS , R. , MOORE , A. , POTVIN , J. and NORMAN , R. 1994 . Assessment of risk factors for development of work-related musculoskeletal disorders (RSI) . Applied Ergonomics , 25 : 157 – 164 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WESTGAARD , R. H. and AARÅS , A. 1984 . Postural muscle strain as a causal factor in the development of musculo-skeletal illness . Applied Ergonomics , 15 : 162 – 174 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WIKTORIN , C. , KARLQVIST , L. , WINKEL , J. and the STOCKHOLM MUSIC 1 STUDY GROUP . 1993 . Validity of self-reported exposures to work postures and manual materials handling . Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health , 19 : 208 – 214 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WIKTORIN , C. , MORTIMER , M. , EKENVALL , L. , KILBOM , Å. and HJELM , E. W. 1995 . HARBO, a simple computer-aided observation method for recording work postures . Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health , 21 : 440 – 449 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WILLIAMS , K. , HAYWOOD , K. and VANSANT , A. 1993 . Force and accruacy throws by loder adults . Journal of Aging and Physical Activity , 34 : 241 – 255 .
   Google Scholar
• WILSON , J. R. and CORLETT , E. N. , eds. 1995 . Evaluation of Human Work , 2nd edn , London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• WINKEL , J. and MATHIASSEN , S. E. 1994 . Assessment of physical work load in epidemiologic studies: concepts, issues and operational considerations . Ergonomics , 37 : 979 – 988 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WINKEL , J. and WESTGAARD , R. 1992 . Occupational and individual risk factors for shoulderneck complaints: Part II. The scientific basis (literature review) for the guide . International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics , 10 : 85 – 104 .
   Google Scholar
• WINKEL , J. , BALOGH , I. , HANSSON , G. Å. , ASTERLAND , P. , KELLERMAN , M. , BYSTRØM , J. and OHLSSON , K. 1995 . “ Assessment of mechanical exposures in ergonomic epidemiology: a research program and some preliminary data ” . In Work With Display Unit 94 , Edited by: Gridco , A. , Molteni , G. , Piccoli , B. and Occhipinti , E. 167 – 172 . Amsterdam : Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• YEN , T. Y. and RADWIN , R. G. 1995 . A video-based system for acquiring biomechanical data synchronized with arbitrary events and activities . IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering , 42 : 944 – 948 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar