Revealing the preservation of First World War shell hole landscapes based on a landscape change study and LiDAR

References

• Agentschap Onroerend Erfgoed. (2018). Inventaris Wereldoorlogerfgoed. Retrieved from https://inventaris.onroerenderfgoed.be/woi.
   Google Scholar
• Antrop, M., & Van Eetvelde, V. (2008). Mechanisms in recent landscape transformation. In U. Mander, C. Brebbia, & J. Martin-Duque (Eds.), Geo-environment and landscape evolution III (pp. 183–192). Southampton: WIT.
   Google Scholar
• Antrop, M., & Van Eetvelde, V. (2017). Landscape perspectives: The holistic nature of landscape. Dordrecht: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Auderset, J., & Moser, P. (2016). Mechanisation and motorisation: Natural resources, knowledge, politics and technology in 19th- and 20th- century agriculture. In C. Martiin, J. Pan-Montojo, & P. Brassley (Eds.), Agricultural in capitalist Europe, 1945-1960: From food shortages to food surpluses (pp. 145–164). Oxon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Bakker, M., Govers, G., van Doorn, A., Quetier, F., Chouvardas, D., & Rounsevell, M. (2008). The response of soil erosion and sediment export to land-use change in four areas of Europe: The importance of landscape pattern. Geomorphology, 98(3–4), 213–226.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton, P. (2008). De slagvelden van wereldoorlog I, van Ieper tot Passendale, het hele verhaal. Tielt: Lannoo.
   Google Scholar
• Blaschke, T., Tiede, D., & Heurich, M. (2004). 3D landscape metrics to modelling forest structure and diversity based on laser scanning date. International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 36(8/W2), 129–132.
   Google Scholar
• Brassley, P., Martiin, C., & Pan-Montojo, J. (2016). European agriculture, 1945-1960. In C. Martiin, J. Pan-Montojo, & P. Brassley (Eds.), Agricultural in capitalist Europe, 1945-1960: From food shortages to food surpluses (pp. 1–21). Oxon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Brenot, J., Saulière, N., Léty, C., Taborelli, P., Zélie, B., Blondeau, R., … Desfossés, Y. (2017). How much did the soldiers dig? A quantification of WW1 remains in Argonne, France. Geoarchaeology, 32(5), 534–548.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bürgi, M., Hersperger, A. M., & Schneeberger, N. (2004). Driving forces of landscape change: Current and new directions. Landscape Ecology, 19, 857–868.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chielens, P. (2009). The last witness: Military aerial photography used in a modern museum context. In B. Stichelbaut, J. Bourgeois, N. Saunders, & P. Chielens (Eds.), Images of conflict: Military aerial photography and archaeology (pp. 13–26). Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars.
   Google Scholar
• Claeys, D. (2017). World War I and the reconstruction of rural landscapes in Belgium and France: A historiographical essay. Agricultural History Review, 65(1), 108–129.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Council of Europe. (1992). Convention for the protection of the archaeological heritage of Europe (European Treaty Series – No. 143, revised). Valetta: Coucil of Europe.
   Google Scholar
• de Matos Machado, R., Amat, J.-P., Arnaud-Fassetta, G., & Bétard, F. (2016). Potentialités de l’outil LiDAR pour cartographier les vestiges de la Grande Guerre en milieu intra-forestier (bois des Caures, forêt domaniale de Verdun, Meuse). EchoGéo, 38, 0–22.
   Google Scholar
• De Schaepdrijver, S. (1997). De Groote Oorlog: Het Koninkrijk België tijdens de Eerste Wereldoorlog. Amsterdam: Atlas.
   Google Scholar
• De Vos, L., Simoens, T., Warnier, D., & Bostyn, F. (2014). “14-”18 Oorlog in België. Leuven: Davidsfonds.
   Google Scholar
• Demasure, B. (2013). Boeren, boter en bezetters’: Onderzoeksgids landbouw, voeding en eerste wereldoorlog. Leuven: Interfaculty Centre for Agrarian History.
   Google Scholar
• Dendooven, D. (2009). Het terrein effenen: Aanleg, infrastructuur en landbeheer. In J. Cornilly, S. De Caigny, D. Dendooven, C. Vandewalle, K. Vandermarliere, & E. Wuyts (Eds.), Bouwen aan wederopbouw 1914-2050: Architectuur in de Westhoek (pp. 81–106). Merelbeke: Stevens.
   Google Scholar
• Derui, D., Kamvasinou, K., & Shinkle, E. (2016). Emerging Landscapes: Between production and representation. Farnham: Ashgate.
   Google Scholar
• Dorner, B., Lertzman, K., & Fall, J. (2002). Landscape pattern in topographically complex landscapes: Issues and techniques for analysis. Landscape Ecology, 17(8), 729–743.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doyle, P., Bennett, M., Macleod, R., & Mackay, L. (2002). Terrain and the Messines Ridge, Belgium, 1914-1918. In P. Doyle & M. Bennett (Eds.), Fields of battle: Terrain in military history (pp. 205–224). Dordrecht: Springer Science.
   Google Scholar
• Drǎguţ, L., Walz, U., & Blaschke, T. (2010). The third and fourth dimensions of landscape: Towards conceptual models of topographically complex landscapes. Landscape Online, 22(1), 1–10.
   Google Scholar
• Florinsky, I. (1998). Combined analysis of digital terrain models and remotely sensed data in landscape investigations. Progress in Physical Geography, 22(1), 33–60.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Florinsky, I. (2017). An illustrated introduction to general geomorphometry. Progress in Physical Geography, 41(6), 1–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FOD Economie. (2011). Kerncijfers landbouw 2011. Retrieved from http://statbel.fgov.be.
   Google Scholar
• Gheyle, W., Stichelbaut, B., Saey, T., Note, N., Hanssens, D., Van den Berghe, H., … Bourgeois, J. (2018). Scratching the surface of war: Airborne laser scans of the great war conflict landscape in Flanders (Belgium). Applied Geography, 90, 55–68.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goetz, S., Steinberg, D., Betts, M., Holmes, R. T., Doran, P., Dubayah, R., & Hofton, M. (2010). Lidar remote sensing variables predict breeding habitat of a neotropical migrant bird. Ecology, 91(6), 1569–1576.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hesse, R. (2014). Geomorphological traces of conflict in high-resolution elevation models. Applied Geography, 46, 11–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoechstetter, S., Walz, U., Dang, L., & Thinh, N. (2008). Effects of topography and surface roughness in analyses of landscape structure: A proposal to modify the existing set of landscape metrics. Landscape Online, 3(1), 1–14.
   Google Scholar
• Hupy, J., & Schaetzl, R. (2006). Introducing “Bombturbation”, a singular type of soil disturbance and mixing. Soil Science, 171(11), 823–836.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Informatie Vlaanderen. (2017). Digitaal Hoogtemodel (DHMV). Retrieved from https://overheid.vlaanderen.be/producten-diensten/digitaal-hoogtemodel-dhmv.
   Google Scholar
• Jenness, J. (2004). Calculating landscape surface area from digital elevation models. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 32(3), 829–839.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kokalj, Ž., Zakšek, K., & Oštir, K. (2011). Application of sky-view factor for the visualisation of historic landscape features in lidar-derived relief models. Antiquity, 85(327), 263–273.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kutner, M., Nacthsheim, C., Neter, J., & Li, W. (2005). Applied linear statistical models. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Lambin, E., Rounsevell, M., & Geist, H. (2000). Are agricultural land-use models able to predict changes in land-use intensity? Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 82(1–3), 321–331.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Listopad, C. M., Masters, R., Drake, J., Weishampel, J., & Branquinho, C. (2015). Structural diversity indices based on airborne LiDAR as ecological indicators for managing highly dynamic landscapes. Ecological Indicators, 57, 268–279.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magnini, L., Bettineschi, C., & De Guio, A. (2017). Object-based shell craters classification from LiDAR-derived sky-view factor. Archaeological Prospection, 24(3), 211–223.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mark, D. (1975). Geomorphometric parameters : A review and evaluation. Physical Geogrpaphy, 57(3–4), 165–177.
   Google Scholar
• Miles, S. (2016). The Western Front: Landscape, tourism and heritage. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Archaeology.
   Google Scholar
• Montgomery, H., & McNeary, R. (2016). Airborne laser scanning and the archaeological interpretation of Ireland’s World War I landscape: Randalstown training camp, county Antrim, Northern reland. In B. Stichelbaut & D. Cowley (Eds.), Conflict landscapes and archaeology from above(pp. 91–108). Dorchester: Ashgate.
   Google Scholar
• Nath, G., & Van Alstein, M. (2012). Overleven en ondernemen. In G. Nath & M. Van Alstein (Eds.), 14-18 van dichtbij: Inspiratiegids voor lokale projecten over de Grote Oorlog (pp. 35–55). Leuven: Acco.
   Google Scholar
• Note, N., Gheyle, W., Den Berghe, H., Van, Saey, T., Bourgeois, J., Van Eetvelde, V., … Stichelbaut, B. (2018). A new evaluation approach of World War One’s devastated front zone: A shell hole density map based on historical aerial photographs and validated by electromagnetic induction field measurements to link the metal shrapnel phenomenon. Geoderma, 310, 257–269.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parcak, S. (2009). Satellite remote sensing for archaeoloy. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• PAWVL. (1917). Rapport “Middenkomiteit voor Landbouwbelangen”. Brugge: Provincie Archief West-Vlaanderen, derde afdeling.
   Google Scholar
• Pearson, C. (2012). Researching militarized landscapes: A literature review on war and the militarization of the environment. Landscape Research, 37(1), 115–133.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearson, C., Coates, P., & Cole, T. (2010). Militarized landscapes: From Gettysburg to Salisbury Plain. London: Continuum Publishing Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Pekin, B., Jung, J., Villanueva-Rivera, L., Pijanowski, B., & Ahumada, J. (2012). Modeling acoustic diversity using soundscape recordings and LIDAR-derived metrics of vertical forest structure in a neotropical rainforest. Landscape Ecology, 27(10), 1513–1522.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pike, R., Evans, I., & Hengl, T. (2009). Geomorphometry: A brief guide. Geomorphometry: Concepts, Software, Applications, 33(1944), 3–30.
   Google Scholar
• Prentiss, A. (1937). Chemicals in war: A treatise on chemical warfare. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Ripka, P., Miles Lewis, A., Kaspar, P., & Vcelak, J. (2007). DC gradiometers for bomb detection: Scalar versus vectorial. Sensor Letters, 5(1), 271–275.
   Google Scholar
• Saey, T., Stichelbaut, B., Bourgeois, J., Van Eetvelde, V., & Van Meirvenne, M. (2013). An interdisciplinary non-invasive approach to landscape archaeology of the great war. Archaeological Prospection, 20, 67–73.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shary, P., Sharaya, L., & Mitusov, A. (2002). Fundamental quantitative methods of land surface analysis. Geoderma, 107(1–2), 1–32.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, L. (2016). Drawing borders in the Middle East after the Great War: Political geography and “subject peoples”. First World War Studies, 7(1), 5–21.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, P., House, J., Bustamante, M., Sobocká, J., Harper, R., Pan, G., … Pugh, T. (2016). Global change pressures on soils from land use and management. Global Change Biology, 22(3), 1008–1028.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stal, C., Bourgeois, J., De Maeyer, P., de Mulder, G., de Wulf, A., Goossens, R., … Stichelbaut, B. (2010). Kemmelberg (Belgium) case study: Comparison of DTM analysis methods for the detection of relicts from the First World War. Remote Sensing for Science, Education and Natural and Cultural Heritage: proceedings of the EARSeL Symposium (pp. 65–71). Paris: EAReL.
   Google Scholar
• Stichelbaut, B. (2011). The first thirty kilometres of the Western Front 1914-1918: An aerial archaeological approach with historical remote sensing data. Archaeological Prospection, 18(1), 57–66.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stichelbaut, B., Note, N., Saey, T., Hanssens, D., Van den Berghe, H., Bourgeois, J., … Gheyle, W. (2017). Non-invasive research of tunneling heritage in the Ypres Salient (1914–1918) – Research of the Tor Top tunnel system. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 26, 109–117.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stupariu, M., Pǎtru-Stupariu, I., & Cuculici, R. (2010). Geometric approaches to computing 3D-landscape metrics. Landscape Online, 24(1), 1–12.
   Google Scholar
• Swanson, F., Kratz, T., Caine, N., & Woodmansee, R. (1988). Landform effects on ecosystem patterns and processes. BioScience, 38(2), 92–98.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taborelli, P., Devos, A., Laratte, S., Brenot, J., Bollot, N., Cancès, B., & Desfossés, Y. (2017a). Apport des plans directeurs et de l’outil LiDAR aéroporté pour la caractérisation des impacts morphologiques de la Grande Guerre: Exemple de la cote 108 (Berry-au-Bac, France). Géomorphologie: Relief, Processus, Environnement, 23(2).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taborelli, P., Devos, A., Laratte, S., Desfossés, Y., & Brenot, J. (2017b). Typologie et organisation spatiale des “polemo-formes” de la Grande Guerre revelees par l’outil LiDAR et le plans directeurs. Application a la Champagne et a L’Argonne. Site de la Revue de Géographie Historique. Retrieved from http://rgh.univ-lorraine.fr/articles/view/88]
   Google Scholar
• Tilman, D. (1999). Global environmental impacts of agricultural expansion: The need for sustainable and efficient practices. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 96(11), 5995–6000.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trout, S. (2010). On the battlefield of memory: The First World War and American remembrance, 1919-1941. American Historical Review. Albama: The University of Alabama.
   Google Scholar
• Turner, B., & Doolittle, W. (1978). The concept and measure of agricultural intensity. Professional Geographer, 30(3), 297–301.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, M. (1989). Landscape ecology: The effect of pattern on process. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 20, 171–197.
   Google Scholar
• Van den Berghe, H., Gheyle, W., Stichelbaut, B., Note, N., Saey, T., Bourgeois, J., … Van Eetvelde, V. (2018). Using the past to indicate the possible presence of relics in the present-day landscape: The western front of the great war in belgium. Landscape Research. doi:10.1080/01426397.2017.1415315
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van de Perre, A. (1919). Trois rapports sur l’avenir économique de la Belgique et du port d’Anvers en particulier. Brussel: De Standaard.
   Google Scholar
• van der Schriek, J., & van der Schriek, M. (2014). Metal detecting: Friend or foe of conflict archaeology? Investigation, preservation and destruction on WWII sites in the Netherlands. Journal of Community Archaeology & Heritage, 1(3), 228–244.
   Google Scholar
• Van Hollebeeke, Y., Stichelbaut, B., & Bourgeois, J. (2014). From landscape of War to archaeological Report: Ten years of professional World War I archaeology in Flanders (Belgium). European Journal of Archaeology, 17, 702–719.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Lanen, R. (2017). Finding vanished routes. Applying a multi-modelling approach on lost route and patch networks in the Veluwe region, the Netherlands. In R. Van Lanen (Ed.), Changing ways. Patterns of connectivity, habitation and persistence in Northwest European lowlands during the first millennium AD (pp. 115–134). Utrecht: Utrecht University.
   Google Scholar
• Van Meirvenne, M., Meklit, T., Verstraete, S., De Boever, M., & Tack, F. (2008). Could shelling in the First World War have increased copper concentrations in the soil around Ypres? European Journal of Soil Science, 59(2), 372–379.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Molle, L. (1990). Oorlogstoestanden 1914–1918. In A. Casseau, M. Pluymers, P. Vandeweerdt, & L. Vints (Eds.), Ieder voor allen: De Belgische Boerenbond, 1890–1990 (pp. 131–146). Leuven: University Leuven.
   Google Scholar
• Vandeweyer, L. (2007). Tuintjes in oorlogstijd. In Y. Segers & L. Van Molle (Eds.), Volkstuinen: Een geschiedenis (pp. 153–180). Leuven: David.
   Google Scholar
• Verbrugghe, G., De Clercq, W., & Van Eetvelde, V. (2017). Routes across the Civitas Menapiorum: Using least cost paths and GIS to locate the Roman roads of Sandy Flanders. Journal of Historical Geography, 57, 76–88.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vuorela, N., & Toivonen, T. (2003). Using past to characterise the present-day biotope, detecting and classifying change transi- tions in the landscape. In U. Mander & M. Antrop (Eds.), Multifunctional landscapes—vol. III: continuity and change (pp. 135–166). Southampton: WIT Press..
   Google Scholar
• Walz, U., Hoechstetter, S., Dragut, L., & Blaschke, T. (2016). Integrating time and the third spatial dimension in landscape structure analysis. Landscape Research, 41(3), 279–293.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wearn, J. A., Budden, A. P., Veniard, S. C., & Richardson, D. (2017). The flora of the Somme battlefield: A botanical perspective on a post-conflict landscape. First World War Studies, 5020, 1–15.
   Google Scholar
• Weizman, E. (2007). Hollow Land: Israel’s architecture of occupation. New York, NY: Verso.
   Google Scholar
• Werbrouck, I., Antrop, M., Van Eetvelde, V., Stal, C., De Maeyer, P., Bats, M., … Zwertvaegher, A. (2011). Digital elevation model generation for historical landscape analysis based on LiDAR data, a case study in Flanders (Belgium). Expert Systems with Applications, 38(7), 8178–8185.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodward, R. (2005). From Military Geography to militarism’s geographies: Disciplinary engagements with the geographies of militarism and military activities. Progress in Humran Geography, 29(6), 718–740.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zakšek, K., Oštir, K., & Kokalj, Ž. (2011). Sky-view factor as a relief visualization technique. Remote Sensing, 3(2), 398–415.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zalewska, A., & Kiarszys, G. (2017). Inconspicuous and forgotten material memories of the First World War: The case of a POW camp in Czersk, Poland. In A. Zalewska, J. Scott, & G. Kiarszys (Eds.), Materiality of troubled pasts archaeologies of conflicts and wars, Warsaw-Szczecin (pp. 22–39). Warsaw: Department of Archaeology, Szczecin University.
   Google Scholar