51
Views
58
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Literacy and cognitive change among ethnically diverse elders

, , , &
Pages 47-60 | Published online: 13 May 2010

References

  • Albert , M. S , Jones , K , Savage , C. R , Berkman , L , Seeman , T , Blazer , D and Rowe , J. W . 1995 . Predictors of cognitive change in older persons: MacArthur studies of successful aging . Psychology and Aging , 10 : 578 – 589 .
  • Albert , S. M and Teresi , J. A . 1999 . Reading ability, education, and cognitive status assessment among older adults in Harlem, New York City . American Journal of Public Health , 89 : 95 – 97 .
  • American Psychiatric Association 1987 Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press
  • Ardila , A , Rosselli , M and Rosas , P . 1989 . Neuropsychological assessment in illiterates: Visuospatial and memory abilities . Brain and Cognition , 11 : 147 – 166 .
  • Baker , F. M , Johnson , J. T , Velli , S. A and Wiley , C . 1996 . Congruence between education and reading levels of older persons . Psychiatric Services , 47 : 194 – 196 .
  • Benton A. L 1955 The Visual Retention Test. New York: The Psychological Corporation
  • Benton A. L Hamsher K. D 1976 Multilingual Aphasia Examination. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa
  • Blessed , G , Tomlinson , B. E and Roth , M . 1968 . The association between quantitative measures of senile change in the cerebral grey matter of elderly subjects . British Journal of Psychology , 114 : 797 – 811 .
  • Boller , F , Mizutani , T , Roessmann , U and Gambetti , P . 1980 . Parkinson's disease, dementia, and Alzheimer's disease: Clinicopathological correlations . Annals of Neurology , 1 : 329 – 335 .
  • Bonaiuto , S , Rocca , W. A , Lippi , A , Luciani , P , Turtu , F , Cavarzeran , F and Amaducci , L . 1990 . Impact of education and occupation on prevalence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and multi‐infarct dementia (MID) in Appignano, Macerata Province, Italy . Neurology , 40 : 346
  • Bondi M. W Salmon D. P Butters N 1994 Neuropsychological features of memory disorders in Alzheimer's disease In R. D. Terry, R. Katzman, & K. L. Bick (Eds.), Alzheimer's disease (pp. 41–63). New York: Raven Press
  • Bowirrat , A , Treves , T , Friedland , R. P and Korczyn , A. D . 2001 . Prevalence of Alzheimer's type dementia in an elderly Arab population . European Journal of Epidemiology , 8 : 119 – 123 .
  • Burin , D. I , Jorge , R. E , Arizaga , R. A and Paulsen , J. S . 2000 . Estimation of premorbid intelligence: The word accentuation test–Buenos Aires version . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 22 : 677 – 685 .
  • Buschke , H and Fuld , P. A . 1974 . Evaluating storage, retention, and retrieval in disordered memory and learning . Neurology , 24 : 1019 – 1025 .
  • Butler , S. M , Ashford , J. W and Snowdon , D. A . 1996 . Age, education, and changes in the Mini‐Mental State Exam scores of older women: Findings from the Nun Study . Journal of the American Geriatrics Society , 44 : 675 – 681 .
  • Callahan , C. M , Hall , K. S , Hui , S. L , Musick , B. S , Unverzagt , F. W and Hendrie , H. C . 1996 . Relationship of age, education, and occupation with dementia among a community‐based sample of African Americans . Archives of Neurology , 53 : 134 – 140 .
  • Caramelli , P , Poissant , A , Gauthier , S , Bellavance , A , Gauvreau , D , Lecours , A. R and Joanette , Y . 1997 . Educational level and neuropsychological heterogeneity in dementia of the Alzheimer type . Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders , 11 : 9 – 15 .
  • Chandra , V , Pandav , R , Dodge , H. H , Johnston , J. M , Belle , S. H , DeKosky , S. T and Ganguli , M . 2001 . Incidence of Alzheimer's disease in a rural community in India: The Indo‐US study . Neurology , 57 : 985 – 989 .
  • Chodosh , J , Reuben , D. B , Albert , M. S and Seeman , T. E . 2002 . Predicting cognitive impairment in high‐functioning community‐dwelling older persons: MacArthur Studies of Successful Aging . Journal of the American Geriatrics Society , 50 : 1051 – 1060 .
  • Christensen , H , Korten , A. E , Jorm , A. F , Henderson , A. S , Jacomb , P. A , Rodgers , B and Mackinnon , A. J . 1997 . Education and decline in cognitive performance: Compensatory but not protective . International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry , 12 : 323 – 330 .
  • Dartigues , J. F , Gagnon , M , Michel , P , Letenneur , L , Commenges , D , Barberger‐Gateau , P , Auriacombe , S , Rigal , B , Bedry , R , Alperovitch , A , Orgogozo , J. M , Henry , P , Loiseau , P , Salamon , R and Groupe d'Etude Paquid . 1991 . Le programme de recherche paquid sur l'epidemiologie de la demence methodes et resultats initiaux . Review of Neurology , 147 : 225 – 230 .
  • Del Ser , T , Gonzalez‐Montalvo , J.‐I , Martinez‐Espinosa , S , Delgado‐Villapalos , C and Bermejo , F . 1997 . Estimation of premorbid intelligence in Spanish people with the Word Accentuation Test and its application to the diagnosis of dementia . Brain and Cognition , 33 : 343 – 356 .
  • Evans , D. A , Beckett , L. A , Albert , M. S , Hebert , L. E , Scherr , P. A , Funkenstein , H. H and Taylor , J. O . 1993 . Level of education and change in cognitive function in a community population of older persons . Annals of Epidemiology , 3 : 71 – 77 .
  • Farmer , M. E , Kittner , S. J , Rae , D. S , Bartko , J. J and Regier , D. A . 1995 . Education and change in cognitive function: The epidemiologic catchment area study . Annals of Epidemiology , 5 : 1 – 7 .
  • Finley , G. E , Ardila , A and Roselli , M . 1991 . Cognitive aging in illiterate Colombian adults: A reversal of the classical aging pattern? . Revista Interamericana de Psicologia , 25 : 103 – 105 .
  • Folstein , M. F , Folstein , S. E and McHugh , P. R . 1975 . ‘Mini‐mental State’: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician . Journal of Psychiatric Research , 12 : 189 – 198 .
  • Fratiglioni , L , Grut , M , Forsell , Y , Viitanen , M , Grafstrom , M , Holmen , K , Ericsson , K , Backman , L , Ahlbom , A and Winblad , B . 1991 . Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias in an elderly urban population: Relationship with age, sex and education . Neurology , 41 : 1886 – 1892 .
  • Gatz , M , Svedberg , P , Pederson , N. L , Mortimer , J. A , Berg , S and Johansson , B . 2001 . Education and the risk of Alzheimer's disease: Findings from the study of dementia in Swedish twins . Journals of Gerontology , 56B : 292 – 300 .
  • Goodglass H Kaplan E 1983 The assessment of aphasia and related disorders. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger
  • Gurland , B. J , Wilder , D , Cross , P , Lantigua , R , Teresi , J. A , Barret , V , Stern , Y and Mayeux , R . 1995 . Relative rates of dementia by multiple case definitions, over two prevalence periods, in three cultural groups . American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry , 3 : 6 – 20 .
  • Hall , K. S , Gureje , O , Gao , S , Ogunniyi , A , Hui , S. L , Baiyewu , O , Unverzagt , F. W , Oluwole , S and Hendrie , H. C . 1998 . Risk factors and Alzheimer's disease: A comparative study of two communities . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , 32 : 698 – 706 .
  • Hendrie , H. C . 2001 . Exploration of environmental and genetic risk factors for Alzheimer's disease: The value of cross‐cultural studies . Current Directions in Psychol Science , 10 : 98 – 101 .
  • Hill , L. R , Klauber , M. R , Salmon , D. P , Yu , E. S. H , Liu , W. T , Zhang , M and Katzman , R . 1993 . Functional status, education, and the diagnosis of dementia in the Shanghai survey . Neurology , 43 : 138 – 145 .
  • Jacobs , D. M , Sano , M , Albert , S , Schofield , P , Dooneief , G and Stern , Y . 1997 . Cross‐cultural neuropsychological assessment: A comparison of randomly selected, demographically matched cohorts of English‐ and Spanish‐speaking older adults . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 19 : 331 – 339 .
  • Kaplan E Goodglass H Weintraub S 1983 Boston Naming Test. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger
  • Kaufman , J. S , Cooper , R. S and McGee , D. L . 1997 . Socioeconomic status and health in blacks and whites: The problem of residual confounding and the resilience of race . Epidemiology , 8 : 621 – 628 .
  • Kawas C. H Katzman R 1999 Epidemiology of dementia and Alzheimer's Disease In R. D. Terry, R. Katzman, S. S. Sisodia, & K. L. Bick (Eds.), Alzheimer's disease (pp. 95–116). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
  • Korczyn , A. D , Kahana , E and Galper , Y . 1991 . Epidemiology of dementia in Ashkelon, Israel . Neuroepidemiology , 10 : 100
  • Lecours , A. R , Mehler , J , Parente , M. A , Caldeira , A , Cary , L , Castro , M. J , Dehaut , F , Delgado , R , Gurd , J , Karmann , D. F , Jakubovitz , R , Osorio , Z , Cabral , L. S and Junquerira , A. M. S . 1987 . Illiteracy and brain damage. 1. Aphasia testing in culturally contrasted populations (control subjects) . Neuropsychologia , 25 : 231 – 245 .
  • Letenneur , L , Commenges , D , Dartigues , J. F and Barberger‐Gateau , P . 1994 . Incidence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in elderly community residents of South‐Western France . International Journal of Epidemiology , 23 : 1256 – 1261 .
  • Loewenstein , D. A , Arguelles , T , Arguelles , S and Linn‐Fuentes , P . 1994 . Potential cultural bias in the neuropsychological assessment of the older adult . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 16 : 623 – 629 .
  • Luria A. R 1976 Cognitive development, its cultural and social foundations. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
  • Manly J. J Jacobs D. M 2001 Future directions in neuropsychological assessment with African Americans In F. R. Ferraro (Ed.), Minority and cross‐cultural aspects of neuropsychological assessment (pp. 79–96). Leiden, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger
  • Manly , J. J , Jacobs , D. M , Sano , M , Bell , K , Merchant , C. A , Small , S. A and Stern , Y . 1999 . Effect of literacy on neuropsychological test performance in nondemented, education‐matched elders . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 5 : 191 – 202 .
  • Manly , J. J , Jacobs , D. M , Touradji , P , Small , S. A and Stern , Y . 2002 . Reading level attenuates differences in neuropsychological test performance between African American and White elders . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 8 : 341 – 348 .
  • Manly J. J Touradji P Tang M. X Stern Y in press Literacy and memory decline among ethnically diverse elders Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology
  • Margo R. A 1985 Disenfranchisement, school finance, and the economics of segregated schools in the United States South, 1980–1910. New York: Garland Publishing
  • Margo R. A 1990 Race and schooling in the South, 1880–1950: An economic history. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
  • Mattis S 1976 Mental status examination for organic mental syndrome in the elderly patient In L. Bellak & T. B. Karasu (Eds.), Geriatric psychiatry (pp. 77–121). New York: Grune & Stratton
  • Mortel , K. F , Meyer , J. S , Herod , B and Thornby , J . 1995 . Education and occupation as risk factors for dementia of the Alzheimer and ischemic vascular types . Dementia , 6 : 55 – 62 .
  • Mortimer J. A 1988 Do psychosocial risk factors contribute to Alzheimer's disease In A. S. Henderson & J. H. Henderson (Eds.), Etiology of Dementia of Alzheimer's Type (pp. 39–52). Chichester, UK: John Wiley
  • Nelson H. E 1982 The National Adult Reading Test (NART): Test Manual. Bury St Edmunds, UK: Thames Valley Test Company
  • Nelson , H. E and O'Connell , A . 1978 . Dementia: The estimation of premorbid intelligence levels using the National Adult Reading Test . Cortex , 14 : 234 – 244 .
  • Ott , A , Breteler , M. M , Van Harskamp , F , Claus , J. J , Van der Cammen , T. J , Grobbee , D. E and Hofman , A . 1995 . Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: Association with education. The Rotterdam study . British Medical Journal , 310 : 970 – 973 .
  • Parasuraman , R and Haxby , J . 1993 . Attention and brain function in Alzheimer's disease: A review . Neuropsychology , 7 : 242 – 272 .
  • Prencipe , M , Casini , A. R , Ferretti , C , Lattanzio , M. T , Fiorelli , M and Culasso , F . 1996 . Prevalence of dementia in an elderly rural population: Effects of age, sex, and education . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 60 : 628 – 633 .
  • Reis , A and Castro‐Caldas , A . 1997 . Illiteracy: A cause for biased cognitive development . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 3 : 444 – 450 .
  • Reis , A , Guerreiro , M and Castro‐Caldas , A . 1994 . Influence of educational level of non‐brain‐damaged subjects on visual naming capacities . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 16 : 939 – 942 .
  • Rosen W 1981 The Rosen Drawing Test. Bronx, NY: Veterans Administration Medical Center
  • Rosselli , M , Ardila , A and Rosas , P . 1990 . Neuropsychological assessment in illiterates. II. Language and praxic abilities . Brain and Cognition , 12 : 281 – 296 .
  • Satz , P , Morgenstern , H , Miller , E. N , Selnes , O. A , McArthur , J. C , Cohen , B. A , Wesch , J , Becker , J. T , Jacobson , L , D'Elia , L. F , Van Gorp , W and Visscher , B . 1993 . Low education as a possible risk factor for cognitive abormalities in HIV‐1: Findings from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) . Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes , 6 : 503 – 511 .
  • Scribner S Cole M 1981 The psychology of literacy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
  • Smith , J. P . 1984 . Race and human capital . American Economic Review , 4 : 685 – 698 .
  • Smith , J. P and Welch , F . 1977 . Black‐White male wage ratios: 1960–1970 . American Economic Review , 67 : 323 – 328 .
  • Snowdon , D. A , Ostwald , S. K and Kane , R. L . 1989 . Education, survival and independence in elderly Catholic sisters, 1936–1988 . American Journal of Epidemiology , 130 : 999 – 1012 .
  • Stern , Y . 2002 . What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 8 : 448 – 460 .
  • Stern , Y , Albert , S , Tang , M. X and Tsai , W. Y . 1999 . Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: Cognitive reserve? . Neurology , 53 : 1942 – 1947 .
  • Stern , Y , Andrews , H , Pittman , J , Sano , M , Tatemichi , T , Lantigua , R and Mayeux , R . 1992 . Diagnosis of dementia in a heterogeneous population. Development of a neuropsychological paradigm‐based diagnosis of dementia and quantified correction for the effects of education . Archives of Neurology , 49 : 453 – 460 .
  • Stern , Y , Gurland , B , Tatemichi , T. K , Tang , M. X , Wilder , D and Mayeux , R . 1994 . Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease . Journal of the American Medical Association , 271 : 1004 – 1010 .
  • Stern , Y , Tang , M. X , Denaro , J and Mayeux , R . 1995 . Increased risk of mortality in Alzheimer's disease patients with more advanced educational and occupational attainment . Annals of Neurology , 37 : 590 – 595 .
  • Sulkava , R , Wikstrom , J , Aromaa , A , Raitasalo , R , Lahtinen , V , Lahtela , K and Palo , J . 1985 . Prevalence of severe dementia in Finland . Neurology , 35 : 1025 – 1029 .
  • Teri , L , McCurry , S. M , Edland , S. D , Kukull , W. A and Larson , E. B . 1995 . Cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease: A longitudinal investigation of risk factors for accelerated decline . Journals of Gerontology: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences , 50A : M49 – M55 .
  • Troster , A. I , Butters , N , Salmon , D. P , Cullum , C. M , Jacobs , D , Brandt , J and White , R. F . 1993 . The diagnostic utility of savings scores: Differentiating Alzheimer's and Huntington's diseases with the Logical Memory and Visual Reproduction tests . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 15 : 773 – 788 .
  • Unverzagt , F. W , Hui , S. L , Farlow , M. R , Hall , K. S and Hendrie , H. C . 1998 . Cognitive decline and education in mild dementia . Neurology , 50 : 181 – 185 .
  • Vygotsky L. S 1962 Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
  • Vygotsky L. S 1978 Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
  • Wechsler D 1981 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale‐Revised. New York: The Psychological Corporation
  • Welch , F . 1966 . Measurement of the quality of education . American Economic Review , 56 : 379 – 392 .
  • Welch , F . 1973 . Black‐White differences in returns to schooling . American Economic Review , 63 : 893 – 907 .
  • Welsh , K. A , Butters , N , Hughes , J. P , Mohs , R. C and Heyman , A . 1992 . Detection and staging of dementia in Alzheimer's disease: Use of the neuropsychological measures developed for the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease . Archives of Neurology , 49 : 448 – 452 .
  • White , L , Katzman , R , Losonczy , K , Salive , M , Wallace , R , Berkman , L , Taylor , J , Fillenbaum , G and Havlik , R . 1994 . Association of education with incidence of cognitive impairment in three established populations for epidemiological studies of the elderly . Journal of Clinical Epidemiology , 47 : 363 – 374 .
  • Whitfield , K. E and Baker‐Thomas , T . 1999 . Individual differences in aging minorities . International Journal of Aging and Human Development , 48 : 73 – 79 .
  • Wilkinson G. S 1993 Wide Range Achievement Test 3 – Administration Manual. Wilimington, DE: Jastak Associates
  • Zhang , M , Katzman , R , Salmon , D , Jin , H , Cai , G , Wang , Z , Qu , G , Grant , I , Yu , E , Levy , P , Klauber , M. R and Liu , W. T . 1990 . The prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in Shanghai, China: Impact of age, gender and education . Annals of Neurology , 27 : 428 – 437 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.