References
- Alaux, C., Brunet, J. L., Dussaubat, C., Mondet, F., Tchamitchan, S., Cousin, M., Brillard, J., Baldy, A., Belzunces, L. P., & Conte, Y. (2010a). Interactions between Nosema microspores and a neonicotinoid weaken honeybees (Apis mellifera). Environmental Microbiology, 12(3), 774–782. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2009.02123.x
- Alaux, C., Ducloz, F., Crauser, D., & Le Conte, Y. (2010b). Diet effects on honeybee immunocompetence. Biology Letters, 6(4), 562–565. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2009.0986
- Alger, S. A., Burnham, P. A., Lamas, Z. S., Brody, A. K., & Richardson, L. L. (2018). Home sick: impacts of migratory beekeeping on honey bee (Apis mellifera) pests, pathogens, and colony size. PeerJ, 6, e5812. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5812
- Allsopp, M. H. (2006). Analysis of Varroa destructor infestation of Southern African honey bee populations [MSc dissertation]. University of Pretoria.
- Bailey, L., & Ball, B. V. (1991). Honey bee pathology. Academic Press.
- Bailey, L., & Lee, D. C. (1962). Bacillus larvae: its cultivation in vitro and its growth in vivo. Journal of General Microbiology, 29, 711–717. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1099/00221287-29-4-711
- Bamrick, J.-F., & Rothenbuhler, W. C. (1961). Resistance to American foulbrood in honey bees. IV. The relationship between larval age at inoculation and mortality in a resistant and a susceptible line. Journal of Insect Pathology, 3, 381–390.
- Baxter, A. (2009). American foulbrood (AFB) in the Western Cape: advisory notice. South African Bee Journal, 81, 8–9.
- Behrens, D., Forsgren, E., Fries, I., & Moritz, R. F. A. (2010). Lethal infection thresholds of Paenibacillus larvae for honeybee drone and worker larvae (Apis mellifera). Environmental Microbiology, 12(10), 2838–2845. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2010.02257.x
- Beims, H., Bunk, B., Erler, S., Mohr, K. I., Sproer, C., Pradella, S., Günther, G., Rohde, M., von der Ohe, M., & Steinert, M. (2020). Discovery of Paenibacillus larvae ERIC V: Phenotypic and genomic comparison to genotypes ERIC I-IV reveal different inventories of virulence factors which correlate with epidemiological prevalences of American Foulbrood. International Journal of Medical Microbiology: IJMM, 310(2), 151394. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmm.2020.151394
- Brødsgaard, C. J., Hansen, H., & Ritter, W. (2000). Progress of Paenibacillus larvae larvae infection in individually inoculated honey bee larvae reared single in vitro, in micro colonies, or in full-size colonies. Journal of Apicultural Research, 39(1–2), 19–27. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2000.11101017
- Brødsgaard, C. J., Ritter, W., & Hansen, H. (1998). Response of in vitro reared honey bee larvae to various doses of Paenibacillus larvae larvae spores. Apidologie, 29(6), 569–578. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1051/apido:19980609
- Danka, R. G., & Villa, J. D. (1994). Preliminary observations on the susceptibility of Africanized honey bees to American foulbrood. Journal of Apicultural Research, 33(4), 243–245. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.1994.11100878
- de Graaf, D. C., Alippi, A. M., Antúnez, K., Aronstein, K. A., Budge, G., De Koker, D., De Smet, L., Dingman, D. W., Evans, J. D., Foster, L. J., Fünfhaus, A., Garcia-Gonzalez, E., Gregore, A., Human, H., Murray, K. D., Nguyen, B. K., Poppinga, L., Spivak, M., van Engelsdorp, D., Wilkins, S., & Genersch, E. (2013). Standard methods for American foulbrood research. In V Dietemann; J D Ellis; P Neumann (Eds) The COLOSS BEEBOOK, Volume II: standard methods for Apis mellifera pest and pathogen research. Journal of Apicultural Research, 52(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3896/IBRA.1.52.1.11
- Dietemann, V., Pirk, C., & Crewe, R, (2009). Is there a need for conservation of honeybees in Africa? Apidologie, 40(3), 285–295. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1051/apido/2009013
- Dingman, D. W. (1983). Bacillus larvae: parameters involved with sporulation and characteristics of two bacteriophages [PhD thesis]. University of Iowa.
- Dingman, D. W., & Stahly, D. P. (1983). Medium promoting sporulation of Bacillus larvae and metabolism of medium components. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 46(4), 860–869. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.46.4.860-869.1983
- Ellis, J. D., & Munn, P. A. (2005). The worldwide health status of honey bees. Bee World, 86(4), 88–101. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/0005772X.2005.11417323
- Finney, D. J. (1952). Probit analysis (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- Finney, D. J. (1971). Probit analysis (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- Forsgren, E., Olofsson, T. C., Vasquez, A., & Fries, I. (2010). Novel lactic acid bacteria inhibiting Paenibacillus larvae in honey bee larvae. Apidologie, 41(1), 99–108. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1051/apido/2009065
- Forsgren, E., Stevanovic, J., & Fries, I. (2008). Variability in germination and in temperature and storage resistance among Paenibacillus larvae genotypes. Veterinary Microbiology, 129(3–4), 342–349. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2007.12.001
- Fries, I., & Raina, S. (2003). American foulbrood and African honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 96(6), 1641–1646. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/96.6.1641
- Genersch, E. (2008). Paenibacillus larvae and American Foulbrood – long since known and still surprising. Journal Für Verbraucherschutz Und Lebensmittelsicherheit, 3(4), 429–434. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s00003-008-0379-8
- Genersch, E. (2010). American Foulbrood in honeybees and its causative agent, Paenibacillus larvae. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 103, S10–S19. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jip.2009.06.015
- Genersch, E., Ashiralieva, A., & Fries, I. (2005). Strain- and genotype-specific differences in virulence of Paenibacillus larvae subsp. larvae, the causative agent of American foulbrood disease in honey bees. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 71(11), 7551–7555. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.71.11.7551-7555.2005
- Genersch, E., Forsgren, E., Pentikainen, J., Ashiralieva, A., Rauch, S., Kilwinski, J., & Fries, I. (2006). Reclassification of Paenibacillus larvae subsp. pulvifaciens and Paenibacillus larvae subsp. larvae as Paenibacillus larvae without subspecies differentiation. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 56(3), 501–511. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1099/ijs.0.63928-0
- Goszczynska, T., & Allsopp, M. (2011). AFB in South Africa: How far has it spread? [Paper presentation]. Diseases оf Honey Bees, Sub-Regional Training Seminar for World Organisation for Animal Health, Ezulwini, Swaziland, June 14–17.
- Hansen, H., & Brødsgaard, C. J. (1999). American foulbrood: a review of its biology, diagnosis and control. Bee World, 80(1), 5–23. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/0005772X.1999.11099415
- Hansen, H., Brødsgaard, C. J., Kryger, P., & Nicolaisen, P. (2003). A scientific note on the presence of Paenibacillus larvae larvae spores in sub-Saharan African honey. Apidologie, 34(5), 471–472. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1051/apido:2003029
- Hayes, W. J., & Kruger, C. L. (2014). Handbook of Haye's principles and methods of toxicology (6th ed.). CRC Press.
- Hernández López, J., Schuehly, W., Crailsheim, K., & Riessberger-Galle, U. (2014). Trans-generational immune priming in honeybees. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 281(1785), 20140454. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.0454
- Hoage, T. R., & Rothenbuhler, W. C. (1966). Larval honeybee response to various doses of Bacillus larvae spores. Journal of Economic Entomology, 59(1), 42–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/59.1.42
- Hristov, Y. V., Le Roux, J. J., Allsopp, M. H., & Wossler, T. C. (in press). Identity and distribution of American foulbrood (Paenibacillus larvae) in South Africa. Journal of Apicultural Research. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2021.1887635
- IBM SPSS Statistics Premium 26.0.0.0. (2019). IBM Corporation 1989, 2019. https://www.ibm.com/za-en/products/spss-statistics
- Lamei, S., Stephan, J. G., Riesbeck, K., Vasquez, A., Olofsson, T., Nilson, B., de Miranda, J. R., & Forsgren, E. (2019). The secretome of honey bee-specific lactic acid bacteria inhibits Paenibacillus larvae growth. Journal of Apicultural Research, 58(3), 405–412. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2019.1572096
- Martin, S. J., Hawkins, G. P., Brettell, L. E., Reece, N., Correia-Oliveira, M. E., & Allsopp, M. H. (2020). Varroa destructor reproduction and cell re-capping in mite-resistant Apis mellifera populations. Apidologie, 51(3), 369–381. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s13592-019-00721-9
- Mogren, C. L., Danka, R. G., & Healy, K. B. (2019). Larval pollen stress increases adult susceptibility to clothianidin in honey bees. Insects, 10(1), 21. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/insects10010021
- Moliné, M. P., Fernandez, N. J., Damiani, N., Churio, M. S., & Gende, L. B. (2020). The effect of diet on Apis mellifera larval susceptibility to Paenibacillus larvae. Journal of Apicultural Research, 59(5), 817–824. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2020.1727086
- Moritz, R. F. A., & Hänel, H. (2009). Restricted development of the parasitic mite Varroa jacobsoni Oud. in the Cape honeybee Apis mellifera capensis Esch. Zeitschrift Für Angewandte Entomologie, 97(1–5), 91–95. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0418.1984.tb03719.x
- Moritz, R. F. A., Härtel, S., & Neumann, P. (2005). Global invasions of the Western honeybee (Apis mellifera) and the consequences for biodiversity. Ecoscience, 12(3), 289–301. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2980/i1195-6860-12-3-289.1
- Mortensen, A. N., Schmehl, D. R., Allsopp, M. H., Bustamante, T. A., Kimmel, C. B., Dykes, M. E., & Ellis, J. D. (2016). Differences in Varroa destructor infestation rates between colonies of two indigenous subspecies of Apis mellifera in the Republic of South Africa. Experimental & Applied Acarology, 68(4), 509–515.
- Oddie, M., Büchler, R., Dahle, B., Kovacic, M., Le Conte, Y., Locke, B., de Miranda, J. R., Mondet, F., & Neumann, P. (2018). Rapid parallel evolution overcomes global honey bee parasite. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 7704. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-26001-7
- OIE. (2018a). World animal health information database. OIE.
- OIE. (2018b). Chapter 3.2.2. American foulbrood of honey bees (infection of honey bees with Paenibacillus larvae). In OIE manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals. OIE.
- Pettis, J. S., vanEngelsdorp, D., Johnson, J., & Dively, G. (2012). Pesticide exposure in honey bees results in increased levels of the gut pathogen Nosema. Die Naturwissenschaften, 99(2), 153–158. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s00114-011-0881-1
- Rauch, S., Ashiralieva, A., Hedtke, K., & Genersch, E. (2009). Negative correlation between individual-insect-level virulence and colony-level virulence of Paenibacillus larvae, the etiological agent of American foulbrood of honeybees. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 75(10), 3344–3347. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02839-08
- Ritter, W., & Allsopp, M. H. (2014). Predators and pests of honey-bees. In Bee health and veterinarians (W. Ritter, ed., pp. 143–147). OIE.
- Rothenbuhler, W. C. (1964a). Behaviour genetics of nest cleaning in honey bees. I. Responses of four inbred lines to disease-killed brood. Animal Behaviour, 12(4), 578–583. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-3472(64)90082-X
- Rothenbuhler, W. C. (1964b). Behaviour genetics of nest cleaning in honey bees. IV. Responses of F1 and backcross generations to disease-killed brood. American Zoologist, 4(2), 111–123. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/4.2.111
- Salmela, H., Amdam, G. V., & Freitak, D. (2015). Transfer of immunity from mother to offspring is mediated via egg-yolk protein vitellogenin. PLoS Pathogens, 11(7), e1005015. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1005015
- Schneider-Orelli, O. (1947). Entomologisches Praktikum. Sauerländer.
- Shapiro-Ilan, D. I., Fuxa, J. R., Lacey, L. A., Onstad, D. W., & Kaya, H. K. (2005). Definitions of pathogenicity and virulence in invertebrate pathology. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 88(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jip.2004.10.003
- Spivak, M. D., Fletcher, J. C., & Breed, M. D. (1991). Introduction. In M. Spivak, D. J. C. Fletcher, & M. D. Breed (Eds.), The “African” honey bee (pp. 1–9). Westview Press.
- Spivak, M. S., & Reuter, G. S. (2001). Resistance to American foulbrood disease by honey bee colonies Apis mellifera bred for hygienic behavior. Apidologie, 32(6), 555–565. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1051/apido:2001103
- Spivak, M., & Gilliam, M. (1998). Hygienic behavior of honey bees and its application for control of brood diseases and varroa. Part I. Hygienic behaviour and resistance to American foulbrood. Bee World, 79(3), 124–134. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/0005772X.1998.11099394
- Spivak, M., & Gilliam, M. (1998). Hygienic behavior of honey bees and its application for control of brood diseases and varroa. Part II. Studies on hygienic behavior since the Rothenbuhler era. Bee World, 79(4), 169–186. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/0005772X.1998.11099408
- Steinhaus, E. A., & Martignoni, M. E. (1970). An abridged glossary of terms used in invertebrate pathology (2nd ed.). USDA Forest Service, PNW Forest and Range Experiment Station.
- Steinkraus, K. H., & Morse, R. A. (1996). Media for the detection of Bacillus larvae spores in honey. Acta Biotechnologica, 16(1), 57–64. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/abio.370160108
- Tarr, H. L. A. (1938). Studies on American foulbrood of bees. III. The resistance of individual larvae to inoculation with the endospores of Bacillus larvae. Annals of Applied Biology, 25(4), 807–814. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7348.1938.tb02355.x
- White, G. F. (1906). The bacteria of the apiary with special reference to bee disease. USDA, Bureau of Entomology, Technical Series, 14, 1–50.
- Winston, M. L. (1992). The honey bee colony: life history. In J. M. Graham (Ed.), The hive and the honey bee (pp. 73–101). Dadant & Sons.
- Woodrow, A. W. (1942). Susceptibility of honey bee larvae to individual inoculations with spores of Bacillus larvae. Journal of Economic Entomology, 35(6), 892–895. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/35.6.892
- Woodrow, A. W., & Holst, E. C. (1942). The mechanism of colony resistance to American foulbrood. Journal of Economic Entomology, 35(3), 327–330. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/35.3.327