References and notes
- An earlier version of this paper was presented to the Third International Conference on Teacher Thinking and Professional Action held at the University of Leuven, Belgium, 14‐17 October 1986
- Department of Education and Science . 1983 . Teaching Quality , London : HMSO . Cmnd 8836
- Department of Education and Science . 1985 . Better Schools , London : HMSO . Cmnd 9469
- Department of Education and Science . 1984 . Initial Teacher Training: Approval of Courses, Circular 3/84 , London : HMSO .
- For more extended discussions of the deficit model of teaching, see Hargreaves, A. (1984) Curriculum policy and the culture of teaching. Paper given at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans; and Brown, S. and McIntyre, D. (1985) Research methodology and new policies for professional development and innovation. Paper given to the annual conference of the Scottish Educational Research Association.
- HMI . 1979 . Aspects of Secondary Education , 262 London : HMSO .
- HMI . 1982 . The New Teacher in School , London : HMSO .
- HMI . 1985 . Education 8‐12 in Combined and Middle Schools , London : HMSO . See, for example, HMI (1978) Primary Education in England (HMSO, London); HMI (1983) 9‐13 Middle Schools‐An Illustrative Survey (HMSO, London); and
- Blenkin , G. M. and Kelly , A. V. 1981 . The Primary Curriculum , London : Harper and Row . See, for example, Bennett, N. (1976) Teaching Styles and Pupil Progress (Open Books, London); Galton, M., Simon, B. and Croll, P. (1980) Inside the Primary Classroom (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London); Gracey, H. (1975) Curriculum or Craftmanship: Elementary Teachers in a Bureaucratic System (University of Chicago Press, Chicago); Barnes, D., and Shemilt, D. (1974) Transmission and interpretation. Educational Review, 26 (3); Westbury, I. (1973) Conventional classrooms, open classrooms and the technology of teaching. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 5 (2); Hammersley, M. (1976) The mobilisation of pupil attention. In Hammersley, M. and Woods, P., The Process of Schooling (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London); and Blenkin, G. M. and
- Tye , B. 1985 . Multiple Realities: A Study of Thirteen American High Schools , Lanham : University Press of America .
- Tye , K. 1985 . The Junior High: School in Search of a Mission , Lanham : University Press of America .
- HMI (1982) (see note 7)
- DES (1983) (see note 2)
- DES (1985), p. 44 (see note 3)
- Ibid. p. 51
- See, for example, DES (1984) (see note 4)
- Rudduck , J. 1988 . “ (forthcoming) cate and initial training ” . In Educational Policy: Controversies and Critiques , Edited by: Hargreaves , A and Reynolds , D. Lewes : Falmer Press . Such points are made by McNamara in a more extended critique of the ‘official’ preoccupation with teachers’ personal qualities. See McNamara, D. (1986) The personal qualities of the teacher and educational policy: a critique. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 12 (1). See also
- DES (1983), p. 8 (see note 2)
- DES (1985), p. 44 (see note 3)
- HMI (1979) (see note 6)
- HMI (1982) (see note 7)
- HMI (1983), para. 3. 19 (see note 8)
- DES (1983), para. 3.29 (see note 2)
- Ibid. para. 3.37
- Ibid. para. 3.40
- Tye, B. (1985) (see note 10); and Tye, K. (1985) (see note 11).
- Wilson , S. M. and Shulman , L. S. 1987 . “ ‘150 different ways’ of knowing: representations of knowledge in teaching ” . In Exploring Teacher Thinking , Edited by: Calderhead , J. Eastbourne : Holt‐Saunders . See, for example
- See, for instance, the experimentally based work of David Berliner, which, while not so exclusively concerned with didactic teaching, nonetheless focuses on subjects in the intellectual‐cognitive, rather than the practical or affective domains. For instance, Berliner, D. C. and Carter, K. J. (1986) Differences in processing classroom information by expert and novice teachers. Paper presented to the Third International Conference of the International Study Association of Teacher Thinking, Leuven, Belgium, 14‐17 October; and Berliner, D. (1987) Ways of thinking about students and classrooms by more and less experienced teachers. In Calderhead (see note 27).
- Flanders , N. 1970 . Analysing Teacher Behavior , New York : Addison‐Wesley . The classic example here is Flanders's recommendations concerning ‘indirect’ teaching which, because it was based on classroom interaction samples of the transmission type, could consider only variation within the transmission model, rather than possible questioning of the appropriateness of that model as a whole. See
- Hammersley , M. 1980 . “ Putting competence into action: some sociological notes on a model of classroom interaction ” . In Adult‐Child Conversation , Edited by: French , P. and Maclure , M. London : Croom Helm .
- Hoetker , J. and Ahlbrand , W. P. 1969 . The persistence of the recitation . American Educational Research Journal , 6
- Westbury (1973) (see note 9)
- Grace , G. 1978 . Teachers, Ideology and Control , London : Routledge & Kegan Paul .
- On the mobilization of pupil attention, see Hammersley (1976) (see note 9)
- Edwards , A. D. and Furlong , V. I. 1978 . The Language of Teaching , London : Heinemann .
- Sinclair , J. M. and Coulthard , R. M. 1974 . Towards an Analysis of Discourse (Oxford. , Oxford : University Press .
- Hammersley , M. 1974 . The organization of pupil participation . Sociological Review , 22 (3)
- Thomas , C. 1984 . An enthnographic study of sixth form lifeM.Phil, thesis , Department of Educational Studies, University of Oxford .
- Hammersey , M. 1977 . “ The cultural resources required to answer a teacher's question ” . In School Experience , Edited by: Woods , P. and Hammersley , M. London : Croom Helm .
- The centrality of the notion of the ‘collective student’ within teachers’ thinking and practice has been discussed by Bromme, R. (1987) Teachers’ assessments of students’ difficulties and progress in understanding in the classroom. In Calderhead (see note 27).
- Dahllof , U. and Lundgren , U. P. 1970 . Macro and micro approaches combined for curriculum process analysis: a Swedish education field project , Report from the Sweden : Institute of Göteborg . The most important work on ‘steering groups’ has been conducted by
- Clark , C. M. and Peterson , P. L. 1980 . “ Teachers’ thought processes ” . In Handbook of Research on Teaching , 3rd edn , Edited by: Wittrock , M. C. New York : Macmillan . See
- Webb , J. 1962 . The sociology of a school . British Journal of Sociology , 13 (3)
- Hargreaves , A. 1979 . “ Strategies, decisions and control: interaction in a middle school classroom ” . In Teacher Decision Making in the Classroom , Edited by: Eggleston , J. London : Routledge & Kegan Paul .
- Woods , P. 1979 . The Divided School , London : Routledge & Kegan Paul .
- Hargreaves , A. 1986 . Two Cultures of Schooling , Lewes : Falmer Press .
- Payne , G. and Hustler , D. 1980 . Teaching the class: the practical management of a cohort . British Journal of Sociology of Education , 1 (1) See
- Beynon , J. 1985 . Initial Encounters in the Secondary School , London : Falmer Press . See Willis, P. (1977) Learning to Labour (Saxon House, Farnborough); Woods (1979) (see note 45); Hammersley (1976) (see note 9); Hammersley (1974) (see note 37); and Hammersley (1980) (see note 30). A study of a comprehensive school with a secondary modern type intake presents similar evidence. See
- Ball , S. 1981 . Beachside Comprehensive , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . See
- Anyon , J. 1981 . Social class and school knowledge . Curriculum Inquiry , 11 (3) See
- Blyth , W. A. L. 1965 . English Primary Education: A Sociological Description , Background vol. 2 , London : Routledge & Kegan Paul .
- Furlong , V. J. 1976 . “ Interaction sets in the classroom: towards a study of pupil knowledge ” . In Explorations in Classroom Observation , Edited by: Stubbs , M. and Delamont , S. Chichester : Wiley . Torode, B. (1978) Teachers’ talk and classroom discipline. In ibid., Marsh, P., Rosser, J. and Harre, R. (1978) The Rules of Disorder (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London); Beynon (1985) (see note 48); Zeichner, K. M., Tabachnick, B. R. and Densmore, K. (1987) Individual, institutional and cultural influences on the development of teachers’ craft knowledge. In Calderhead (see note 27).
- Hargreaves , A. 1978 . “ The significance of classroom coping strategies ” . In Sociological Interpretations of Schooling and Classrooms: A Reappraisal , Edited by: Barton , L. and Walker , S . Driffield : Nafferton Books . Support for this point, and development of the concept of coping strategies more generally, is available In
- Woods (1979) (see note 45)
- Denscombe , M. 1985 . Classroom Control: A Sociological Perspective , London : Allen and Unwin . See Westbury (1973) (see note 9); Pollard, A. (1985) The Social World of the Primary School (Holt‐Saunders, Eastbourne), p. 31 and
- This they have done in a series of surveys of the effects of local authority expenditure policies on the education service in England and Wales
- HMI (1979) (see note 6)
- Hargreaves , D. 1982 . The Challenge for the Comprehensive School , London : Routledge & Kegan Paul .
- Gray , J. , McPherson , A. F. and Raffe , D. 1983 . Reconstructions of Secondary Education , London : Routledge & Kegan Paul .
- Ibid.
- Scarth , J. and Hammersley , M. 1987 . Examinations and teaching: an exploratory study , Unpublished paper, School of Education Milton Keynes : Open University . See Hammersley, M., and Scarth, J. (1986) The impact of examinations on secondary school teaching. Unpublished research report, School of Education, Open University, Milton Keynes; and
- At the time of writing, Hammersley and Scarth are analysing their data with respect to some of these factorsxy
- Weston , P. 1979 . Negotiating the Curriculum , Windsor) : nfer . Olson, J. (1982) Innovation in the Science Curriculum (Croom Helm, London).
- Turner , G. 1983 . The Social World of the Comprehensive School , London : Croom Helm .
- Sikes , P. , Measor , L. and Woods , P. 1985 . Teacher Careers: Crisis and Continuities , Lewes : Falmer Press .
- Scarth , J. 1983 . “ Teachers' school‐based experiences of examining ” . In Curriculum Practice: Some Sociological Case Studies , Edited by: Hammersley , M. and Hargreaves , A. Lewes : Falmer Press .
- Mortimore , J. and Mortimore , P. 1984 . Secondary School Examinations: The Helpful Servant, not the Dominating Master. , University of London Institute of Education . Bedford Way Papers No. 18
- HMI (1982) (see note 7)
- National Union of Teachers . 1984 a . Teaching Quality , London : National Union of Teachers . 70 HMI (1983) (see note 8)
- National Union of Teachers . 1984 b . 9‐13 Middle Schools , London : National Union of Teachers .
- Goodson , I. 1983 . School Subjects and Curriculum Change: Case Studies in the Social History of Curriculum , London : Croom Helm . See Bernstein, B. (1971) On the classification and framing of educational knowledge. In Young, M. F. D., Knowledge and Control (Collier‐Macmillan, London); and
- Goodson , I. , ed. 1985 . Social Histories of the Secondary Curriculum , Lewes : Falmer Press . A point made repeatedly In
- Barnes and Shemilt (1974) (see note 9)
- Ball (1981) (see note 49). See also Evans, J. (1985) Teaching in Transition (Open University Press, Milton Keynes); and Hargreaves (1986) (see note 46).
- Bernstein (1971) (see note 72)
- Baglin , E. 1984 . A case study of a social education department. Dissertation for the Special Diploma in Educational Studies, Department of Educational Studies , University of Oxford . A point revealed by
- Examples can be seen in Sikes, Measor and Woods (1985) (see note 65)
- Hargreaves (1986), p. 188 (see note 46)
- Sikes, Measor and Woods (1985), p. 188 (see note 65)
- Hargreaves , D. 1983 . “ The teaching of art and the art of teaching ” . In In Hammersley and Hargreaves (see note 66)
- Ball , S. and Lacey , C. 1980 . “ Subject disciplines as the opportunity for group action ” . In Teacher Strategies , Edited by: Woods , P. London : Croom Helm .
- The quotation is from a United States middle school teacher, cited in Webb, R. B. and Ashton, P. (1986) Teacher motivation and the conditions of teaching: a call for ecological reform. Paper delivered to the International Sociology of Education Conference, Westhill College, Birmingham.
- Hargreaves (1986) (see note 46)
- Riseborough , G. 1981 . Teacher careers and comprehensive schooling: an empirical study . Sociology , 15 (3)
- Freedman , S. Weeding men out of woman's true profession . Paper delivered to the International Sociology of Education Conference . Birmingham. : Westhill College . For a critical discussion of teacher ‘burnout’, see
- Lortie , D. 1975 . Schoolteacher , Chicago : University of Chicago Press . These points are made by
- Denscombe (1985) (see note 55)
- Lortie (1975) (see note 87)
- On the culture of individualism within teaching, see Hargreaves (1982) (see note 58)
- Jackson , P. W. 1977 . “ The way teachers think ” . In The Social Context of Learning and Development , Edited by: Glickwell , J. C. New York : Gardner Press . The immediacy of teaching is discussed by Jackson, P. W. (1968) Life in Classrooms (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York); and
- Hargreaves , A. 1984 . Experience counts; theory doesn't: how teachers talk about their work . Sociology of Education , 57 October I have developed this point In