Science as a Vocation in the 1990s

References

• Alpert, D. “Performance and Paralysis: The Organizational Context of the American Research University.” Journal of Higher Education, 56 (May/June 1985), 241–81.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barber, B. Science and the Social Order. New York: Collier, 1952.
   Google Scholar
• Blumenthal, D., et al. “Industrial Support of University Research in Biotechnology.” Science, 231 (1986), 242–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bush, V. Science: The Endless Frontier. Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation [1945] 1960.
   Google Scholar
• Carroll, G. R., and M. T. Hannan. “Density Dependence in the Evolution of Populations of Newspaper Organizations.” American Sociological Review, 54 (1989), 524–41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carroll, G. R., and M. T. Hannan. “Reply to Zucker.” American Sociological Review 54 (1989), 545–48.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chubin, D. E., and E. J. Hackett. Peerless Science: Peer Review and U. S. Science Policy. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1990.
   Google Scholar
• Clark, B. Values in Higher Education: Conflict and Accommodation. Tucson, Ariz.: Center for the Study of Higher Education, 1983.
   Google Scholar
• Clark, B. The Higher Education System: Academic Organization in Cross-National Perspective. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.
   Google Scholar
• Coggeshall, P. E., and J. C. Norvell. “Changing Postdoctoral Career Patterns for Biomedical Scientists.” Science, 202 (1978), 487–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiMaggio, P., and W. Powell. “The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields.” American Sociological Review, 48 (1983), 147–60.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erikson, K. T. Everything in Its Path. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1976.
   Google Scholar
• Etzkowitz, H. “Entrepreneurial Scientists and Entrepreneurial Universities in American Academic Science.” Minerva, 21 (1983), 198–233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuchsberg, G. “Prospect of Commercial Gain From Unconfirmed Discovery Prompted Utah U. Officials to Skirt Usual Scientific Protocol.” Chronicle of Higher Education, 17 May 1989, p. A5.
   Google Scholar
• Geiger, R. To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities since World War II. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.
   Google Scholar
• Geiger, R. Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities since World War II. New York: Oxford University Press, in press.
   Google Scholar
• General Accounting Office. “University Finances: Research Revenues and Expenditures” (GAO/RCED-86-162BR). Washington, D.C.: USGAO, July 1986.
   Google Scholar
• Gordon, G., and S. Marquis. “Freedom, Visibility of Consequences and Scientific Innovation.” American Journal of Sociology, 72 (1966), 195–202.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gouldner, A. W. “Cosmopolitans and Locals: Toward an Analysis of Latent Social Roles — I.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 2 (1958), 281–306.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gouldner, A. W. “Cosmopolitans and Locals: Toward an Analysis of Latent Social Roles—II.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 2 (1958), 444–80.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hackett, E. J. “Funding and Academic Research in the Life Sciences: Results of an Exploratory Study.” Science and Technology Studies, 5 (1987), 134–47.
   Google Scholar
• Hagstrom, W. O. “Anomy in Scientific Communities.” Social Problems, 12 (1964), 186–95.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagstrom, W. O. The Scientific Community. New York: Basic Books, 1965.
   Google Scholar
• Hagstrom, W. O. “Competition in Science.” American Sociological Review, 39 (1974), 1–18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Institute of Medicine. Personnel Needs and Training for Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1985.
   Google Scholar
• Kerr, C. The Uses of the University. N.Y.: Harper and Row, 1963.
   Google Scholar
• Kerr, C. “‘The Uses of the University’ Two Decades Later: Postscript 1982.” Change, 14 (1982), 23–31.
   Google Scholar
• Keyworth, G. A., II. “Federal R&D: Not an Entitlement.” Science, 219 (1983), 801.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruytbosch, C., and S. Messinger. “Unequal Peers: The Situation of Researchers at Berkeley.” American Behavioral Scientist, 11 (1968), 33–43.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• La Follette, M. C. (ed.). Quality in Science. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982.
   Google Scholar
• Leslie, S. W. “Playing the Education Game to Win: The Military and Interdisciplinary Research at Stanford.” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, 18 (1987), 55–88.
   Google Scholar
• Levinson, R. M. “The Faculty and Institutional Isomorphism.” Academe, 75 (1989), 23–27.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Louis, K. S., et al. “Entrepreneurs in Academe: An Exploration of Behaviors among Life Scientists.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 34 (1989), 110–31.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merton, R. K. The Sociology of Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973.
   Google Scholar
• Merton, R. K. Sociological Ambivalence and Other Essays. New York: The Free Press, 1976.
   Google Scholar
• Meyer, J., and B. Rowan. “Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony.” American Journal of Sociology, 83 (1977), 340–63.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitroff, I. I. “Norms and Counter-norms in a Select Group of the Apollo Moon Scientists: A Case Study of the Ambivalence of Scientists.” American Sociological Review, 39 (1974), 579–95.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitroff, I. I. The Subjective Side of Science. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier, 1974.
   Google Scholar
• National Research Council. Postdoctoral Appointments and Disappointments. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1981.
   Google Scholar
• National Research Council. An Assessment of Research-Doctorate Programs in the United States: Biological Sciences. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1982.
   Google Scholar
• National Science Board. Science and Engineering Indicators 1987. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987.
   Google Scholar
• National Science Foundation, Division of Policy Research and Analysis. Distribution of U.S. Academic Research Activity: An Economic View. Washington, D.C.: Mimeo, September 1988.
   Google Scholar
• Nicholson, H. “Autonomy and Accountability of Basic Research.” Minerva, 15 (1977), 32–61.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearson, R. “Researchers Living on the Fringe.” Nature, 327 (1987), 86.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelz, D., and F. M. Andrews. Scientists in Organizations: Productive Climates for Research and Development (rev. ed.) Ann Arbor, Mich: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1976.
   Google Scholar
• Pfeffer, J., and G. Salancik. The External Control of Organizations. New York: Harper and Row, 1978.
   Google Scholar
• Phillips, D. I., and B. P. S. Shen (eds.). Research in the Age of the Steady-State University. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1982.
   Google Scholar
• Remington, J. A. “Beyond Big Science in America: The Binding of Inquiry.” Social Studies of Science, 18 (1988), 45–72.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rip, A., and A. J. Nederhof. “Between Dirigisme and Laissez-faire: Effects of Implementing the Science Policy Priority for Biotechnology in The Netherlands.” Research Policy, 15 (1986), 253–68.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts, S. (ed.). Academic Research in the United Kingdom: Its Organization and Prospects. London: Taylor Graham, 1984.
   Google Scholar
• Scott, W. R. “The Adolescence of Institutional Theory.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 32 (1987), 493–511.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shils, E. The Academic Ethic. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983.
   Google Scholar
• Slaughter, S. “Academic Freedom and the State.” Journal of Higher Education, 59 (May/June 1988), 241–62.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, B. L. R. (ed.). The State of Graduate Education, Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1985.
   Google Scholar
• Stern, B. J. “Freedom of Research in American Science.” Science and Society, 18 (1954), 97–122.
   Google Scholar
• Storer, N. W. The Social System of Science. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1966.
   Google Scholar
• Teich, A. “Research Centers and Non-faculty Researchers: A New Academic Role.” In Research in the Age of the Steady-State University, edited by D. I. Phillips and B. P. S. Shen, pp. 91–108. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1982.
   Google Scholar
• Thompson, J. Organizations in Action. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.
   Google Scholar
• Tolbert, P. “Institutional Environments and Resource Dependence: Sources of Administrative Structure in Institutions of Higher Education.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 30 (1985), 1–13.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veblen, T. The Higher Learning in America, A Memorandum on the Conduct of Universities by Business Men. Stanford, Calif.: Academic Reprints: 1954 [1918].
   Google Scholar
• Weber, M. “Science as a Vocation.” In From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, edited by H. Gerth and C. W. Mills, pp. 129–56. New York: Oxford University Press, 1946.
   Google Scholar
• Weiner, C. “Universities, Professors, and Patents: A Continuing Controversy.” Technology Review, 89 (February/March 1986).
   Google Scholar
• Winner, L. “Brandy, Cigars, and Human Values.” In The Whale and the Reactor, pp. 155–63. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.
   Google Scholar
• Wyngaarden, J. B. “Nurturing the Scientific Enterprise.” Science, 223 (1984), 361–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zucker, L. “The Role of Institutionalization in Cultural Persistence.” American Sociological Review, 42 (1977), 725–43.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zucker, L. (ed.), Institutional Patterns and Organizations: Culture and Environment. Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1988.
   Google Scholar
• Zucker, L. “Comment on Carroll-Hannan.” American Sociological Review, 54 (1989), 542–45.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar