Scour at culvert outlets as influenced by the turbulent flow structure

References

• Abt , S. R. , Kloberdanz , R. L. and Mendoza , C. 1984 . Unified culvert scour determination . J. of Hyd Eng. ASCE , 110 Oct : 1475 – 1479 . 1984
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali , K. H. M. and Lim , S. Y. 1986 . Local scour caused by submerged wall jets . Proc Inst Civ. Engrs. , 81 Dec : 607 – 645 . pt 2, 1986
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali , K. H. M. and Neyshaboury , A. A. S. 1991 . Localised scour downstream of a deeply submerged horizontal jet . Proc Inst Civ Engrs. , 91 March : 1 – 18 . pt 2, 1991
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett , S. J. and Best , J. L. Sept 1993 . Structure of turbulence over two-dimensional dunes. Sediment transport mechanisms in coastal environments and rivers , Euromech 310 Edited by: Belorgey , M. , Rajona , R. D. and Sleath , J. F. A. Sept , World Scientific Pubs . 1993, ISBN 981 02 1854 0
   Google Scholar
• Blaisdell , F. W. and Anderson , C. L. 1988 . A comprehensive generalised study of scour at cantilevered pipe outlets . J. of Hyd Res. , 26 April : 357 – 376 . pt4, 1988
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohan , J. P. Jan 1970 . Erosion and riprap requirements at culvert and storm-drain outlets , Report no. H-70-2 Jan , Vicksburg, Mississippi : US Army Engrs Waterways Experiment Station . 1970
   Google Scholar
• Breusers , H. N. C. and Raudkivi . 1991 . Scouring. Hydraulic structures design manual , Vol. 2 , 109 – 116 . Rotterdam : Balkema . 1991
   Google Scholar
• Grass , A. J. 1971 . Initial instability of fine bed sand . J. of Hyd Div. ASCE. , 96 ( HY3 ) March : 619 – 632 . 1970
   Google Scholar
• Grass , A. J. 1983 . “ The influence of boundary layer turbulence on the mechanism of sediment transport ” . In Mechanics of sediment transport , Edited by: Sumer , B. M. and Muller , A. 3 – 17 . Balkema : Rotterdam .
   Google Scholar
• Iseya , F. and Ikeda , H. Effect of dune development on sediment suspension under unsteady flow conditions . Proc. of 30th Japanese conference on Hydraulics, JSCE . pp. 505 – 510 . In Japanese, taken from Nezu and Nakagawa (1993) pp221
   Google Scholar
• Laushey , L. M. , Kappus , U. and Ofwana , M. R. Magnitude and rate of erosion at culvert outlets . 12th IAHR Congress . Fort Collins, Colorado. pp. C39.1 – C39.8 . 1967
   Google Scholar
• Lim , S. Y. 1995 . Scour below unsubmerged full flowing culvert outlets . Proc Inst Civ Engrs Wat, Mark and Energy , 112 June : 136 – 149 . pt2, 1985
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liriano , S. L. 1999 . The influence of near bed turbulent flow structures on scour hole development at pipe culvert outlets , UK ALI0 9AB. , Hatfield : University of Hertfordshire . PhD Thesis
   Google Scholar
• Lu , S. S. and Willmarth , W. W. 1973 . Measurements of the structure of the Reynolds stress in a turbulent boundary layer . J. of Fluid Mech , 60 : 481 – 511 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean , S. R. , Nelson , J. M. and Shreve , R. L. 1996 . “ Flow-sediment interactions in separating flows over bed-forms ” . In From Coherent flow structures in open channels , Edited by: Ashworth , P. J. , Bennett , S. J. , Best , J. L. and McLell , S. J. Wiley pubs . 1996, ISBN 0 471 95723 2
   Google Scholar
• Melville , B. W. 1975 . Local scour at bridge sites , School of Engineering Rep. No 117 NZ : University of Auckland .
   Google Scholar
• Melville , B. W. and Raudkivi , A. J. 1977 . Flow characteristics in local scour at bridge piers . J. of Hyd. Res. , 15 : 373 – 380 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mih , W. C. and Hoopes , J. A. 1972 . Mean and turbulent velocities for plane jet . J. of Hyd Div, Proc ASCE. , 98 ( no. HY7 ) July : 1275 – 1294 . 1972
   Google Scholar
• Müller , A. and Gyr , A. 1986 . On the vortex formation in the mixing layer behind dunes . J. of Hyd Res IAHR. , 24 May : 359 – 375 . pt5, 1986
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakagawa , H. and Nezu , I. 1987 . Experimental investigation on turbulent structure of backward-facing step flow in an open channel . J. of Hyd Res, IAHR. , 25 : 67 – 88 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson , J. M. , McLean , S. R. and Wolfe , S. R. 1993 . Mean flow and turbulence fields over two-dimensional bed forms . Water Res. Res. , 29 December : 3935 – 3953 . pt 12, 1993
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson , J. M. , Shreve , R. L. , McLean , S. R. and Drake , T. G. 1995 . Role of near-bed turbulence structure in bed load transport and bed form mechanics . Water Res. Res. , 31 August : 2071 – 2086 . pt8, 1995
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nezu , I. and Nakagawa , H. Accurate measurements of space-time correlations of coherent vortex behind dunes in turbulent open-channel flows with combination of LDA and hotfilm anemometer . Workshop on Instrumentation for Hydraulic Laboratories . pp. 29 – 44 . Burlington, , Canada : IAHR/CCIW .
   Google Scholar
• Nezu , I. and Nakagawa , H. 1993 . Turbulence in open-channel flows , IAHR Monograph Rotterdam : AA Balkema . 1993. ISBN 90 5410 1180
   Google Scholar
• Nik Hassan , N. M. K. and Narayanan , R. Local erosion due to jet . IAHR Symposium on scale effects in modelling sediment transport phenomena . Toronto, Canada. pp. 221 – 231 . 25 - 28/8/86
   Google Scholar
• Nortek . 1997 . ADV users manual Nortek AS Norway
   Google Scholar
• Rajaratnam , N. and Berry , B. 1977 . Erosion by circular turbulent wall jets . J. of Hyd Res. IAHR , 15 Mar : 277 – 289 . pt3, 1977
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raupach , M. R. 1981 . Conditional statistics of Reynolds stress in rough-wall and smooth-wall turbulent boundary layers . J. of Fluid Mech. , 108 : 363 – 382 . 1981
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruff , J. R. , Abt , S. R. , Mendoza , C. , Shaikh , A. and Kloberdanz , R. Sept 1982 . Scour at culvert outlets in mixed bed materials , Colorado State Univ Engineering Research Centre Report no. FHWA/RD - 82/011 Sept , Fort Collins, Colorado 1982
   Google Scholar
• Schoppmann , B. The mechanics of flow and transport of a progressive scour hole . 16th IAHR Congress . Sao Paulo, Brazil. Vol. 2 , pp. 189 – 195 . 27th July – 1st August 1975
   Google Scholar
• Sutherl , A. J. 1967 . Proposed mechanism for sediment entrainment by turbulent flows . J. of Geophysical Research , 72 : 6183 – 6194 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorne , P. D. , Williams , J. J. and Heathershaw , A. D. 1989 . In situ measurements of marine gravel threshold and transport . Sedimentology , 36 : 61 – 74 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace , J. W. , Ecklemann , H. and Brodkey , R. S. 1972 . The wall region in turbulent shear flow . J. of Fluid Mech. , 54 : 39 – 48 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams and Kemp . 1971 . Initiation of ripples on flat sediment beds . J. of Hyd. Div, ASCE. , 97 ( HY4 ) April : 505 – 522 . 1971
   Google Scholar