402
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Articles

The stimulus-organism-response approach to the overcrowding problem: Qualitative evidence from theme park visitors

ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon

References

  • Andereck, K. L., & Becker, R. H. (1993). Perceptions of carry‐over crowding in recreation environments. Leisure Sciences, 15(1), 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490409309513184
  • Babin, B. J., & Darden, W. R. (1996). Good and bad shopping vibes: spending and patronage satisfaction. Journal of Business Research, 35(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-2963(95)00125-5
  • Bajada, T., & Titheridge, H. (2017). The attitudes of tourists towards a bus service: Implications for policy from a Maltese case study. Transportation Research Procedia, 25, 4110–4129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2017.05.342
  • Baum, A., & Greenberg, C. I. (1975). Waiting for a crowd: The behavioral and perceptual effects of anticipated crowding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(4), 671–679. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.32.4.671
  • Bentz, J., Rodrigues, A., Dearden, P., Calado, H., & Lopes, F. (2015). Crowding in marine environments: Divers and whale watchers in the Azores. Ocean & Coastal Management, 109, 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.03.001
  • Bharucha-Reid, R., & Kiyak, H. A. (1982). Environmental effects on affect: Density, noise, and personality. Population and Environment, 5(1), 60–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01359052
  • Bouchard, G. (2003). Cognitive appraisals, neuroticism, and openness as correlates of coping strategies: An integrative model of adaptation to marital difficulties. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 35(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087181
  • Brown, A., Kappes, J., & Marks, J. (2013). Mitigating theme park crowding with incentives and information on mobile devices. Journal of Travel Research, 52(4), 426–436. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287512475216
  • Castaldo, S., Penco, L., & Profumo, G. (2021). Cruising in the COVID-19 pandemic era: Does perceived crowding really matter? International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 33(8), 2586–2612. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-07-2020-0688
  • Chang, H. J., Eckman, M., & Yan, R. N. (2011). Application of the stimulus-organism-response model to the retail environment: The role of hedonic motivation in impulse buying behavior. The International Review of Retail, Distribution, and Consumer Research, 21(3), 233–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593969.2011.578798
  • Cheng, C., & Cheung, M. W. (2005). Cognitive processes underlying coping flexibility: differentiation and integration. Journal of Personality, 73(4), 859–886. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00331.x
  • Chopdar, P. K., & Balakrishnan, J. (2020). Consumers response towards mobile commerce applications: SOR approach. International Journal of Information Management, 53, 102106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102106
  • Chuo, H. Y., & Heywood, J. L. (2014). An optimal queuing wait for visitors’ most favorite ride at theme parks. Advances in Hospitality and Leisure, 10, 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1745-354220140000010003
  • Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage.
  • Cságoly, Z., Sæþórsdóttir, A. D., & Ólafsdóttir, R. (2017). Tourism changing the edge of the wild. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 17(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2016.10.004
  • Dogru-Dastan, H. (2022). A chronological review on perceptions of crowding in tourism and recreation. Tourism Recreation Research, 47(2), 190–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2020.1841373
  • Doorne, S. (2000). Caves, cultures and crowds: Carrying capacity meets consumer sovereignty. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 8(2), 116–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580008667352
  • Eder, R., & Arnberger, A. (2012). The influence of place attachment and experience use history on perceived depreciative visitor behaviour and crowding in an urban national park. Environmental Management, 50(4), 566–580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-012-9912-8
  • Fefer, J. P., Hallo, J. C., Collins, R. H., Baldwin, E. D., & Brownlee, M. T. (2021). From displaced to misplaced: Exploring the experience of visitors who were ‘crowded out’ of their recreation destination. Leisure Sciences. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2021.1898497
  • Fix, P. J., Carroll, J., & Harrington, A. M. (2013). Visitor experiences across recreation settings: a management or measurement issue? Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 3–4, 28–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2013.09.003
  • Fleishman, L., Feitelson, E., & Salomon, I. (2004). The role of cultural and demographic diversity in crowding perception: Evidence from nature reserves in Israel. Tourism Analysis, 9(1), 23–40. https://doi.org/10.3727/1083542041437530
  • Fleishman, L., Feitelson, E., & Salomon, I. (2007). Behavioural adaptations to crowding disturbance: Evidence from nature reserves in Israel. Leisure Sciences, 29(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400600983339
  • Goldberg, L. R. (1992). The development of markers for the Big-Five Factor structure. Psychological Assessment, 4(1), 26–42. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.4.1.26
  • Greenglass, E. R., & Fiksenbaum, L. (2009). Proactive coping, positive affect, and well-being. European Psychologist, 14(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040.14.1.29
  • Hennessy, D. A., & Wiesenthal, D. L. (1997). The relationship between traffic congestion, driver stress and direct versus indirect coping behaviours. Ergonomics, 40(3), 348–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/001401397188198
  • Hwang, J., Yoon, S. Y., & Bendle, L. J. (2012). Desired privacy and the impact of crowding on customer emotions and approach‐avoidance responses: Waiting in a virtual reality restaurant. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 24(2), 224–250. https://doi.org/10.1108/09596111211206150
  • Hou, Y., Zhang, K., & Li, G. (2021). Service robots or human staff: How social crowding shapes tourist preferences. Tourism Management, 83, 104242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104242
  • Isitpacked.com. (2021). Bye-bye short lines: Disneyland discounts tickets, ups capacity. https://www.isitpacked.com/2021/07/07/disneyland-discounts-capacity/
  • Kainzinger, S., Arnberger, A., & Burns, R. C. (2016). Setting preferences of high and low use river recreationists: How different are they? Environmental Management, 58(5), 767–779. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-016-0754-7
  • Kalisch, D., & Klaphake, A. (2007). Visitors’ satisfaction and perception of crowding in a German National Park: A case study on the island of Hallig Hooge. Forest Snow and Landscape Research, 81(1–2), 109–122.
  • Kim, D., Lee, C. K., & Sirgy, M. J. (2016). Examining the differential impact of human crowding versus spatial crowding on visitor satisfaction at a festival. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 33(3), 293–312. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2015.1024914
  • Kim, D. Y., & Park, S. (2008). Customers’ responses to crowded restaurant environments: cross-cultural differences between American and Chinese. Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 16(1–2), 137–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/10507050802097024
  • Kim, S. O., Shelby, B., & Needham, M. D. (2014). Effects of facility developments and encounter levels on perceptions of settings, crowding, and norms in a Korean park. Environmental Management, 53(2), 441–453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-013-0207-5
  • Klanjšček, J., Geček, S., Marn, N., Legović, T., & Klanjšček, T. (2018). Predicting perceived level of disturbance of visitors due to crowding in protected areas. Plos One, 13(6), e0197932. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197932
  • Krefting, L. (1991). Rigor in Qualitative Research: The assessment of trustworthiness. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy: Official Publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association, 45(3), 214–222. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.45.3.214
  • Kuentzel, W. F., & Heberlein, T. A. (1992). Cognitive and behavioural adaptations to perceived crowding: A panel study of coping and displacement. Journal of Leisure Research, 24(4), 377–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.1992.11969903
  • Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage.
  • Mehrabian, A., & Russell, J. A. (1974). An approach to environmental psychology. MIT Press.
  • Manning, R. E., & Valliere, W. A. (2001). Coping in outdoor recreation: Causes and consequences of crowding and conflict among community residents. Journal of Leisure Research, 33(4), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2001.11949952
  • Milman, A., Tasci, A. D., & Wei, W. (2020). Crowded and popular: The two sides of the coin affecting theme-park experience, satisfaction, and loyalty. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 18, 100468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2020.100468
  • Moyle, B., & Croy, G. (2007). Crowding and visitor satisfaction during the off-season: Port Campbell National Park. Annals of Leisure Research, 10(3-4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1080/11745398.2007.9686779
  • Neuts, B., & Nijkamp, P. (2012). Tourist crowding perception and acceptability in cities: An applied modelling study on Bruges. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(4), 2133–2153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2012.07.016
  • Niles, R. (2021, June 12). Do we have to go back to crowded theme parks? https://www.themeparkinsider.com/flume/202106/8281/.
  • Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K. (2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42, 533–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-013-0528-y
  • Popp, M. (2012). Positive and negative urban tourist crowding: Florence, Italy. Tourism Geographies, 14(1), 50–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2011.597421
  • Rupf, R., Haegeli, P., Karlen, B., & Wyttenbach, M. (2019). Does perceived crowding cause winter backcountry recreationists to displace? Mountain Research and Development, 39(1), 60–70. https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-18-00009.1
  • Sach, A. (2021, May 21). Theme parks aim to keep visitors safe—and screaming. https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/travel/theme-parks-summer-guide-openings-rules/2021/05/20/b5d78c6c-b1d0-11eb-ab43-bebddc5a0f65_story.html
  • Santini, F. D. O., Ladeira, W. J., Sampaio, C. H., & Perin, M. G. (2020). Effects of perceived retail crowding: A meta-analytic study. The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research, 30(4), 411–436. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593969.2020.1738259
  • Sekaran, U. (2003). Research methods for business: A skill building approach. John Wiley & Sons.
  • Sever, I., Verbič, M., & Marušić, Z. (2018). Measuring trail users’ perception of crowding in a peri-urban nature park: A bestworst scaling experiment. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 35, 202–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2018.09.002
  • Shelby, B., & Heberlein, T. A. (1984). A conceptual framework for carrying capacity determination. Leisure Sciences, 6(4), 433–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490408409513047
  • Smith, J. W., Moore, R. L., & Sommerville, M. (2013). Non-sovereign visitor satisfaction: A case study of military training on the Appalachian trail. Managing Leisure, 18(3), 239–251. https://doi.org/10.1080/13606719.2013.796182
  • Stewart, W. H., Jr., May, R. C., & Ledgerwood, D. E. (2015). Do you know what I know? Intent to share knowledge in the US and Ukraine. Management International Review, 55(6), 737–773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11575-015-0252-9
  • Stokols, D. (1972a). On the distinction between density and crowding: Some implications for future research. Psychological Review, 79(3), 275–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0032706
  • Stokols, D. (1972b). A social-psychological model of human crowding phenomena. Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 38(2), 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944367208977409
  • Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. M. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Sage Publications.
  • Sun, Y. Y., & Budruk, M. (2017). The moderating effect of nationality on crowding perception, its antecedents, and coping behaviours: A study of an urban heritage site in Taiwan. Current Issues in Tourism, 20(12), 1246–1264. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2015.1089845
  • Torres, E. N., Milman, A., & Park, S. (2021). Customer delight and outrage in theme parks: A roller coaster of emotions. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 22(3), 338–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/15256480.2019.1641455
  • Wang, Y., & Li, X. (. (2019). Procrastination of travel: The effect of crowdedness. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 43(3), 447–460. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348018808360
  • White, D. D. (2007). An interpretive study of Yosemite national park visitors’ perspectives toward alternative transportation in Yosemite Valley. Environmental Management, 39(1), 50–62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-006-0061-9
  • Williams, E. N., & Morrow, S. L. (2009). Achieving trustworthiness in qualitative research: A pan-paradigmatic perspective. Psychotherapy Research : Journal of the Society for Psychotherapy Research, 19(4-5), 576–582. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503300802702113
  • Vaske, J. J., & Donnelly, M. P. (2002). Generalizing the encounter–norm–crowding relationship. Leisure Sciences, 24(3-4), 255–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400290050718
  • Zehrer, A., & Raich, F. (2016). The impact of perceived crowding on customer satisfaction. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 29, 88–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2016.06.007
  • Zhang, Y., Li, X. R., & Su, Q. (2017). Does spatial layout matter to theme park tourism carrying capacity? Tourism Management, 61, 82–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.01.020
  • Ziegler, J. A., Dearden, P., & Rollins, R. (2016). Participant crowding and physical contact rates of whale shark tours on Isla Holbox, Mexico. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 24(4), 616–636. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1071379

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.