Learning New Letter-like Writing Patterns Explicitly and Implicitly in Children and Adults

REFERENCES

• Abbott, R. D., & Berninger, V. W. (1993). Structural Equation Modeling of Relationships among Developmental Skills and Writing Skills in Primary-Grade and Intermediate-Grade Writers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(3), 478–508. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.85.3.478.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alloway, T. P. (2007). Automated working memory assessment – Dutch translation. London: PEarson Assessment and Information B.V. Translated and reproduced with permission of Pearson Assessment and Information B.V.
   Google Scholar
• APA (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th rev. ed.).Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
   Google Scholar
• Berninger, V. W., Vaughan, K. B., Abbott, R. D., Abbott, S. P., Woodruff Rogan, L., Brooks, A., Reed, E., & Graham, S. (1997). Treatment of handwriting problems in beginning writers: Transfer from handwriting to composition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 652–666. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.89.4.652.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berninger, V., Yates, C., Cartwright, A., Rutberg, J., Remy, E., & Abbott, R. (1992). Lower-level developmental skills in beginning writing. Reading and Writing, 4(3), 257–280. doi:10.1007/BF01027151.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blank, R., Smits-Engelsman, B., Polatajko, H., & Wilson, P. (2012). European Academy for Childhood Disability (EACD): Recommendations on the definition, diagnosis and intervention of developmental coordination disorder. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 54, 54–93. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.04171.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosga-Stork, I., Overvelde, A., Van Bommel-Rutgers, I., Van Cauteren, M., Halfwerk, B., Nijhuis-van der Sanden, R., & Smits-Engelsman, B. (2009). [Inventory of referral patterns, research and treatment of children with writing problems. A digital survey]. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Kinderfysiotherapie, 21, 14–18. [In Dutch].
   Google Scholar
• Buddenberg, C. A., & Davis, C. (2000). Test-retest reliability of the Purdue Pegboard Test. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 54, 555–5588. doi:10.5014/ajot.54.5.555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capio, C. M., Poolton, J. M., Sit, C. H. P., Eguia, K. F., & Masters, R. S. W. (2013). Reduction of errors during practice facilitates fundamental movement skills in children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 57(4), 295–305. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2012.01535.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clements, S. D. (1966). Minimal brain dysfunction in children: Terminology and identification. Washington, DC: US Department of Health Education and Welfare.
   Google Scholar
• Destrebecqz, A., & Cleeremans, A. (2001). Can sequence learning be implicit? New evidence with the process dissociation procedure. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 8, 343–350. doi:10.3758/BF03196171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dinehart, L. H. (2014). Handwriting in early childhood education: Current research and future implications. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 15(1), 97–118. doi:10.1177/1468798414522825.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drempt, N. van, McCluskey, A., & Lannin, N. A. (2011). A review of factors that influence adult handwriting performance. Australian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 58, 321–328. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1630.2011.00960.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feder, K. P., & Majnemer, A. (2007). Handwriting development, competency, and intervention. Review. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 49, 312–317. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.00312.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitts, P. M., & Posner, M. I. (1967). Human performance. Belmont, California: BRooks/Cole publishing company.
   Google Scholar
• Graham, S., Harris, K., Mason, L., Fink-Chorzempa, B., Moran, S., & Saddler, B. (2008). How do primary grade teachers teach handwriting? A national survey. Reading and Writing, 21, 49–69. doi:10.1007/s11145-007-9064-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halsband, U., & Lange, R. K. (2006). Motor learning in man: A review of functional and clinical studies. Journal of Physiology, 99, 414–424.
   Google Scholar
• Hammerschmidt, S., & Sudsawad, P. (2004). Teachers' survey on problems with handwriting: Referral, evaluation, and outcomes. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 58(2), 185–192. doi:10.5014/ajot.58.2.185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamstra-Bletz, L., & Blöte, A. (1993). A longitudinal study on dysgraphic handwriting in primary school. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26, 689–699. doi:10.1177/002221949302601007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartingsveldt, M. J., van, Cup, E. H. C., Groot, I. de, & Nijhuis-van der Sanden, M. W. G. (2014). Writing Readiness Inventory Tool in Context (WRITIC): Reliability and convergent validity. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 61, 102–109. doi: 10.1111/1440-1630.12082 doi:10.1111/1440-1630.12082.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartingsveldt, M. J., van, Cup, E. H. C., Hendriks, J. C.M., Vries, L. de, Groot, I. de, & Nijhuis-van der Sanden, M. W. G. (2015). Predictive validity of kindergarten assessments on handwriting readiness. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 36, 114–124. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.08.014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson, S. E., Sugden, D. A., & Barnett, A. L. (2007). Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2, Second Edition (Movement ABC-2). Examiner's Manual. London: HArcourt Assessment.
   Google Scholar
• Jones, D., & Christensen, C. A. (1999). Relationship between automaticity in handwriting and students' ability to generate written text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(1), 44–49. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.1.44.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jongbloed-Pereboom, M., Nijhuis-van der Sanden, M. W.G., & Steenbergen, B. Explicit and Implicit Motor Sequence Learning in Children and Adults; the Role of Age and Visual Working Memory. Submitted.
   Google Scholar
• Jongbloed-Pereboom, M., Nijhuis-van der Sanden, M. W. G., & Steenbergen, B. (2013). Norm scores of the Box and Block Test for children ages 3–10 years. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 67(3), 312–318. doi:10.5014/ajot.2013.006643.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jongbloed-Pereboom, M., Peeters, A., Overvelde, A., Nijhuis-van der Sanden, M. W. G., & Steenbergen, B. (2015). Learning of writing letter-like sequences in children with physical and multiple disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 36, 150–161. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.10.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jongmans, M. J., Smits-Engelsman, B. C.M., & Schoemaker, M. (2003). Consequences of comorbidity of developmental coordination disorders and learning disabilities for severity and pattern of perceptual-motor dysfunction. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(6), 528–537. doi:10.1177/00222194030360060401.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karlsdottir, R., & Stefansson, T. (2002). Problems in developing functional handwriting. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 94, 623–662. doi:10.2466/pms.2002.94.2.623.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kellog, R. T., Olive, T., & Piolat, A. (2007). Verbal, visual, and spatial working memory in written language production. Acta Psychologica, 124(3), 382–397. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2006.02.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirby, A., Edwards, L., & Sugden, D. (2011). Emerging adulthood in developmental coordination disorder: Parent and young adult perspectives. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32, 1351–1360. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.01.041.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleynen, M., Braun, S. M., Bleijlevens, M. H., Lexis, M. A., Rasquin, S. M., Halfens, J., Wilson, M. R., Beurskens, A. J., & Masters, R. S. W. (2014). Using a Delphi technique to seek consensus regarding definitions, descriptions and classification of terms related to implicit and explicit forms of motor learning. Plos One, 9(6), e100227. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0100227.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleynen, M., Braun, S. M., Rasquin, S. M., Bleijlevens, M. H., Lexis, M. A., Halfens, J., Wilson, M. R., Masters, R. S. W., & Beurskens, A. J. (2015). Multidisciplinary views on applying explicit and implicit motor learning in practice: An international survey. Plos One, 10(8), e0135522. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0135522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marr, D., Cermak, S., Cohn, E. S., & Henderson, A. (2003). Fine motor activities in Head Start and kindergarten classrooms. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 57, 550–557. doi:10.5014/ajot.57.5.550.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mathiowetz, V., & Rogers, Dowe-Keval (1986). Donahoe, & Rennels The Purdue Pegboard: Norms for 14- to 19-year-olds. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 40(3), 174–179. doi:10.5014/ajot.40.3.174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maxwell, J. P., Masters, R. S. W., & Eves, F. F. (2003). The role of working memory in motor learning and performance. Consciousness and Cognition, 12, 376–402. doi:10.1016/S1053-8100(03)00005-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McHale, K., & Cermak, S. A. (1992). Fine motor activities in elementary school: Preliminary findings and provisional implications for children with fine motor problems. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 46, 898–903. doi:10.5014/ajot.46.10.898.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meulemans, T., van der Linden, M., & Perruchet, P. (1998). Implicit sequence learning in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 69, 199–221. doi:10.1006/jecp.1998.2442.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nissen, M. J., & Bullemer, P. T. (1987). Attentional requirements for learning: Evidence from performance measures. Cognitive Psychology, 19, 1–32. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(87)90002-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naka, M. (1998). Repeated writing facilitates children's memory or pseudocharacters and foreign letters. Memory and Cognition, 26(4), 804–809. doi:10.3758/BF03211399.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Overvelde, A., & Hulstijn, W. (2011a). Handwriting development in grade 2 and grade 3 primary school children with normal, at risk, or dysgraphic characteristics. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32(2), 540–548. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.12.027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Overvelde, A., & Hulstijn, W. (2011b). Learning new movement patterns: A study on good and poor writing comparing learning conditions emphasizing spatial, timing and abstract characteristics. Human Movement Science, 30, 731–744. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2010.08.016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perelle, I. B., & Ehrman, L. (1994). An International study of human handedness: The data. Behavior Genetics, 24(3), 217–227. doi:10.1007/BF01067189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poolton, J. M., & Zachry, T. L. (2007). So you want to learn implicitly? Coaching and learning through implicit learning techniques. International Journal of Sport Science and Coaching, 2(1), 67–78. doi:10.1260/174795407780367177.
   Google Scholar
• Reber, A. S. (1992). The cognitive unconscious: An evolutionary perspective. Consciousness and Cognition, 1, 93–133. doi:10.1016/1053-8100(92)90051-B.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rourke, B. P., Ahmad, S. A., Collins, D. W., Hayman-Abello, B. A., & Warriner, E. M. (2002). Child clinical/pediatric neuropsychology: Some recent advances. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 309–339. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin, N., & Henderson, S. E. (1982). Two sides of the same coin: Variation in teaching methods and failure to learn to write. Special Education, 9, 17–24. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8578.1982.tb00576.x.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, R. A., & Lee, T. D. (2013). Motor learning and performance: From principles to application. (5th revised edition). Champaign, Illinois:HUman Kinetic Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M. (2010). Nederlandse bewerking van de Movement Assessment Battery for children -2. Handleiding: Pearson. Amsterdam.
   Google Scholar
• Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M., Blank, R., Van der Kaay, A.-C., Mosterd-Van der Meijs, R., Vlugt-Van der Brand, E., & Polatajko, H. J. et al. (2013). Efficacy of interventions to improve motor performance in children with developmental coordination disorder: A combined systematic review and meta-analysis. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 55(3), 229–237. doi:10.1111/dmcn.12008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M., Niemeijer, A. S., & van Galen, G. P. (2001). Fine motor deficiencies in children diagnosed as DCD on poor grapho-motor ability. Human Movement Science, 20(1–2), 161–182. doi:10.1016/S0167-9457(01)00033-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steenbergen, B., van der Kamp, J., Verneau, M., Jongbloed-Pereboom, M., & Masters, R. S. W. (2010). Implicit and explicit learning: Application form basic research to sports for individuals with impaired movement dynamics. Disability and Rehabilitation, 32(18), 1509–1516. doi:10.3109/09638288.2010.497035.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamopol, L., & Tamopol, M. (1977). Brain function and reading disabilities. Baltimore:UNiversity Park Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, K. M., & Nelson, C. A. (2001). Serial reaction time learning in preschool- and school-age children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 79, 364–387. doi:10.1006/jecp.2000.2613.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiffin, J., & Asher, E. J. (1948). The Purdue Pegboard; norms and studies of reliability and validity. J Appl Psychol, 32(3):234–247. doi:10.1037/h0061266.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinck, A., Maassen, B. A. M., Hulstijn, W., Diender, M. G., Mullaart, R. A., Rotteveel, J. J., & Nijhuis-van der Sanden, M. W. G. (2012). Motor sequence learning in children with spina bifida. Developmental Neuropsychology, 37(7), 601–616. doi:10.1080/87565641.2012.697502.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinter, A., & Detable, C. (2008). Implicit and explicit motor learning in children with and without Down's syndrome. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 26(4), 507–523. doi:10.1348/026151007X267300.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinter, A., & Chartrel, E. (2010). Effects of different types of learning on handwriting movements in young children. Learning and Instruction, 20, 476–486. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.07.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volman, M. J. M., Van Schendel, B. M., & Jongmans, M. J. (2006). Handwriting difficulties in primary school children: A search for underlying mechanisms. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 60(4), 451–460. doi:10.5014/ajot.60.4.451.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D., & Naglieri, J. A. (2008). Wechsler non-verbal – NL. Amsterdam:PEarson Assessment and Information B.V.
   Google Scholar
• Willingham, D. B. (1998). A neuropsychological theory of motor skill learning. Psychological Review, 105, 558–584. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.105.3.558.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wulf, G., Hoss, M., & Prinz, W. (1998). Instructions for motor learning: Differential effects of internal versus external focus of attention. Journal of Motor Behavior, 30, 169–179. doi:10.1080/00222899809601334.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar