298
Views
11
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Assessment of Implicit Health Attitudes: A Multitrait–Multimethod Approach and a Comparison Between Patients With Hypochondriasis and Patients With Anxiety Disorders

&
Pages 55-65 | Received 04 Jun 2013, Published online: 09 May 2014

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author.
  • Archer, R.P., & Krishnamurthy, R. (1993). A review of MMPI and Rorschach interrelationships in adult samples. Journal of Personality Assessment, 61, 277–293. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa6102_9
  • Asendorf, J.B., Banse, R., & Mücke, D. (2002). Double dissociation between implicit and explicit personality self-concept: The case of shy behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 380–393. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.83.2.380
  • Barsky, A.J., Ahern, D.K., Bailey, E.D., Saintfort, R., Liu, E.B., & Peekna, H.M. (2001). Hypochondriacal patients’ appraisal of health and physical risk. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 783–787. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.5.783
  • Barsky, A.J., Coeytaux, R.R., Sarnie, M.K., & Cleary, P.D. (1993). Hypochondriacal patients’ beliefs about good health. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1085–1089.
  • Barsky, A.J., Wyshak, G., & Klerman, G.L. (1992). Psychiatric comorbidity in DSM–III–R hypochondriasis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 101–108. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1992.01820020021003
  • Beck, A.T., Eppstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R.A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 893–897. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.56.6.893
  • Bentler, P.M., & Chou, C.P. (1987). Practical issues in structural equation modeling. Sociological Methods and Research, 16, 78–117. doi:10.1177/0049124187016001004
  • Bornstein, R.F., Bowers, K.S., & Robins, K.J. (1995). Differential relationships of objective and projective dependency scores to self-reports of interpersonal life events in college-student subjects. Journal of Personality Assessment, 65, 255–269. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa6502_3
  • Boulet, J., & Boss, M.W. (1991). Reliability and validity of the Brief Symptom Inventory. . Psychological Assessment, 3, 433–437. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.3.3.433
  • Bradley, M.M., & Lang, P.J. (1994). Measuring emotion: The self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25, 49–59. doi:10.1016/0005-7916(94)90063-9
  • Broday, S.F., & Mason, J.L. (1991). Internal consistency of the Brief Symptom Inventory for counseling-center clients. . Psychological Reports, 68, 94. doi:10.2466/PR0.68.1.94-94
  • Campbell, D.T., & Fiske, D.W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait–multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81–105. doi:10.1037/h0046016
  • Cunningham, W.A., Preacher, K.J., & Banaji, M.R. (2001). Implicit attitude measures: Consistency, stability, and convergent validity. Psychological Science, 12, 163–170. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00328
  • Derogatis, L.R. (1993). Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI): Administration, scoring and procedures manual (3rd ed.). Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Services.
  • Derogatis, L.R., & Melisaratos, N. (1983). The Brief Symptom Inventory: An introductory report. Psychological Medicine, 13, 595–605. doi:10.1017/S0033291700048017
  • Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S.C. (2002). Predictive validity of an implicit association test for assessing anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1441–1455. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1441
  • Egloff, B., Weck, F., & Schmukle, S.C. (2008). Thinking about anxiety moderates the relationship between implicit and explicit anxiety measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 771–778. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2007.08.005
  • Eid, M. (2000). A multitrait–multimethod model with minimal assumptions. Psychometrika, 65, 241–261. doi:10.1007/BF02294377
  • Eid, M., Nussbeck, F.W., Geiser, C., Cole, D.A., Gollwitzer, M., & Lischetzke, T. (2008). Structural equation modelling of multitrait–multimethod data: Different models for different types of methods. Psychological Methods, 13, 230–253. doi:10.1037/a0013219
  • First, M.B., Spitzer, R.L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J.B. W. (1997). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM–IV Axis I Disorder (SCID–I). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
  • Franke, G.H. (2000). Brief Symptom Inventory von L. R. Derogatis (Kurzform der SCL–90–R)—Deutsche version: Manual . [Short version of the SCL–90–R—German version]. Göttingen, Germany: Beltz Test GmbH.
  • Gamer, J., Schmukle, S.C., Luka-Krausgrill, U., & Egloff, B. (2008). Examining the dynamics of the implicit and explicit self-concept in social anxiety: Changes in the Implicit Association Test–Anxiety and the Social Phobia Anxiety Inventory following treatment. Journal of Personality Assessment, 90, 476–480. doi:10.1080/00223890802248786
  • Greenwald, A.G., & Banaji, M.R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4–27. doi:10.1037//0033-295X.102.1.4
  • Greenwald, A.G., Banaji, M.R., Rudman, L.A., Farnham, S.D., Nosek, B.A., & Mellott, D.S. (2002). A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept. Psychological Review, 109, 3–25. doi:10.1037//0033-295X.109.1.3
  • Greenwald, A.G., McGhee, D.E., & Schwartz, J.L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
  • Greenwald, A.G., Nosek, B.A., & Banaji, M.R. (2003). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197–216. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197
  • Greenwald, A.G., Poehlman, T.A., Uhlmann, E.L., & Banaji, M.R. (2009). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Metaanalysis of predictive validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 17–41. doi:10.1037/a0015575
  • Gropalis, M., Bleichhardt, G., Hiller, W., & Witthöft, M. (2013). Specificity and modifiability of cognitive biases in hypochondriasis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81, 558–565. doi:10.1037/a0028493
  • Gropalis, M., Bleichhardt, G., Witthöft, M., & Hiller, W. (2012). Hypochondriasis, somatoform disorders, and anxiety disorders: Sociodemographic variables, general psychopathology, and naturalistic treatment effects. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 200, 406–412. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e31825322e5
  • Hadjistavropoulos, H.D., Craig, K.D., & Hadjistavropoulos, T. (1998). Cognitive and behavioral responses to illness information: The role of health anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 149–164. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00014-X
  • Haenen, M.-A., de Jong, P.J., Schmidt, A.J. M., Stevens, S., & Visser, L. (2000). Hypochondriacs’ estimation of negative outcomes: Domaining specificity and responsiveness to reassuring and alarming information. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 819–833. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00128-X
  • Haenen, M.-A., Schmidt, A.J. M., Schoenmakers, M., & Van den Hout, M.A. (1998). Quantitative and qualitative aspects of cancer knowledge—Comparing hypochondriacal subjects and healthy controls. Psychology and Health, 13, 1005–1014. doi:10.1080/08870449808407445
  • Hiller, W., & Rief, W. (2004). Internationale Skalen für Hypochondrie. Deutschsprachige Adaptation des Whiteley-Index (WI) und der Illness Attitude Scales (IAS) (Manual) . [International scales of hypochondriasis: Manual]. Bern, Switzerland: Huber.
  • Hiller, W., Rief, W., & Fichter, M.M. (2002). Dimensional and categorical approaches to hypochondriasis. . Psychological Medicine, 32, 707–718. doi:10.1017/S0033291702005524
  • Hitchcock, P.B., & Methews, A. (1992). Interpretation of bodily symptoms in hypochondriasis. . Behaviour Research and Therapy, 30, 223–234. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(92)90068-R
  • Höfling, V., & Weck, F. (2013). Assessing bodily preoccupations is sufficient: Clinically effective screening for hypochondriasis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 75, 526–531. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2013.10.011
  • Jasper, F., & Witthöft, M. (2011). Health anxiety and attentional bias: The time course of vigilance and avoidance in light of pictorial illness information. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25, 1131–1138. doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.08.004
  • Jasper, F., & Witthöft, M. (2013). Automatic evaluative processes in health anxiety and their relations to emotion regulation. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 37, 521–533. doi:10.1007/s10608-012-9484-1
  • Karademas, E.C., Christopoulou, S., Dimostheni, A., & Pavlu, F. (2008). Health anxiety and cognitive interference: Evidence from the application of a modified Stroop task in two studies. . Personal and Individual Differences, 44, 1138–1150. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.11.007
  • Kellner, R. (1986). Somatization and hypochondriasis. New York, NY: Praeger.
  • Kline, R.B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford. doi:10.1177/1049731509336986
  • Lecci, L., & Cohen, D.J. (2002). Perceptual consequences of an illness-concern induction and its relation to hypochondriacal tendencies. Health Psychology, 21, 147–156. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.21.2.147
  • Lees, A., Mogg, K., & Bradley, B.P. (2005). Health anxiety, anxiety sensitivity, and attentional bias for pictorial and linguistic health treat cues. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 453–462. doi:10.1080/02699930441000184
  • MacLeod, A.K., Haynes, C., & Sensky, T. (1998). Attributions about common bodily sensations: Their associations with hypochondriasis and anxiety. Psychological Medicine, 28, 225–228. doi:10.1017/S0033291797005849
  • Marcus, D.K., & Church, S.E. (2003). Are dysfunctional beliefs about illness unique to hypochondriasis? Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 54, 543–547. doi:10.1016/S0022-3999(02)00526-3
  • Margraf, J., & Ehlers, A. (2007). Deutschsprachige Adaptation des Beck Anxiety Inventory von A. T. Beck und R. A. Stern . [German adaptation of the Beck Anxiety Inventory by A. T. Beck and R. A. Stern]. Bern, Switzerland: Huber.
  • McClelland, D.C., Koestner, R., & Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychological Review, 96, 690–702. doi:10.1037//0033-295X.96.4.690
  • Meyer, G.J. (1996). The Rorschach and MMPI: Toward a more scientifically differentiated understanding of cross-method assessment. Journal of Personality Assessment, 67, 558–578. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa6703_11
  • Meyer, G.J. (1997). On the integration of personality assessment methods: The Rorschach and MMPI. Journal of Personality Assessment, 68, 297–330. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa6802_5
  • Muthén, L.K., & Muthén, B.O. (2010). Mplus user's guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
  • Nosek, B.A. (2005). Moderators of the relationship between implicit and explicit evaluation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 75, 707–715. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.134.4.565
  • Nosek, B.A., & Smyth, F.L. (2007). A multitrait–multimethod validation of the Implicit Association Test: Implicit and explicit attitudes are related but distinct constructs. Experimental Psychology, 54, 14–29. doi:10.1027/1618-3169.54.1.14
  • Noyes, R. (1999). The relationship of hypochondriasis to anxiety disorders. General Hospital Psychiatry, 21, 8–17. doi:10.1016/S0163-8343(98)00063-2
  • Noyes, R., Kathol, R.G., Fisher, M.M., Phillips, B.M., Suelzer, M.T., & Woodman, C.L. (1994). Psychiatric comorbidity among patients with hypochondriasis. General Hospital Psychiatry, 16, 78–87. doi:10.1016/0163-8343(94)90049-3
  • Nussbeck, F.W., Eid, M., Geiser, C., Courvoisier, D.S., & Lischetzke, T. (2009). A CTC(M – 1) model for different types of raters. Methodology, 5, 88–98. doi:10.1027/1614-2241.5.3.88
  • Olatunji, B.O., Deacon, B.J., & Abramowitz, J.S. (2009). Is hypochondriasis an anxiety disorder? British Journal of Psychiatry, 194, 481–482. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.061085
  • Owens, K., Asmundson, G.J. G., Hadjistavropoulos, T., & Owens, T.J. (2004). Attentional bias towards illness threat in individuals with elevated health anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28, 57–66. doi:10.1023/B:COTR.0000016930.85884.29
  • Payne, B.K., Burkley, M.A., & Stokes, M.B. (2008). Why do implicit and explicit attitude tests diverge? The role of structural fit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 16–31. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.1.16
  • Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N.P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
  • Rachman, S. (2012). Health anxiety disorders: A cognitive construal. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50, 502–512. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2012.05.001
  • Rief, W., Hiller, W., & Margraf, J. (1998). Cognitive aspects of hypochondriasis and the somatization syndrome. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 587–595. doi:10.1037//0021-843X.107.4.587
  • Roefs, A., Huijding, J., Smulders, F.T. Y., MacLeod, C.M., de Jong, P.J., Wiers, R.W., & Jansen, A.T. M. (2011). Implicit measures of association in psychopathology research. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 149–193. doi:10.1037/a0021729
  • Salkovskis, P.M. (1989). Somatic disorders. In K. Hawton, P.M. Salkovskis, J.W. Kirk, & D.M. Clark (Eds.), Cognitive therapy behavior for psychiatric problems: A practical guide (pp. 235–276). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
  • Schweizer, K. (2010). Some guidelines concerning the modeling of traits and abilities in test construction. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 26, 1–2. doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000001
  • Sensky, T., MacLeod, A.K., & Rigby, M.F. (1996). Causal attributions about common somatic sensations among frequent general practice attenders. Psychological Medicine, 26, 641–646. doi:10.1017/S0033291700035716
  • Sirri, L., Grandi, S., & Fava, G.A. (2008). The Illness Attitude Scales. . Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 77, 337–350. doi:10.1159/000151387
  • Smith, E.R., & DeCoster, J. (2000). Dual-process models in social and cognitive psychology: Conceptual integration and links to underlying memory systems. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 108–131. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0402_01
  • Warwick, H.M. C., & Salkovskis, P.M. (1990). Hypochondriasis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 105–117. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(90)90023-C
  • Weck, F., Bleichhardt, G., & Hiller, W. (2009). The factor structure of the Illness Attitude Scales in a German population. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 16, 164–171. doi:10.1007/s12529-009-9043-7
  • Weck, F., Bleichhardt, G., & Hiller, W. (2010). Screening for hypochondriasis with the Illness Attitude Scales. Journal of Personality Assessment, 92, 260–268. doi:10.1080/00223891003670216
  • Weck, F., Bleichhardt, G., Witthöft, M., & Hiller, W. (2011). Explicit and implicit anxiety: Differences between patients with hypochondriasis, patients with anxiety disorders, and healthy controls. . Cognitive Therapy and Research, 35, 317–325. doi:10.1007/s10608-010-9303-5
  • Weck, F., Neng, J.M. B., Richtberg, S., & Stangier, U. (2012a). Dysfunctional beliefs about symptoms and illness in patients with hypochondriasis. Psychosomatics, 53, 148–154. doi:10.1016/j.psym.2011.11.007
  • Weck, F., Neng, J.M. B., Richtberg, S., & Stangier, U. (2012b). The restrictive concept of good health in patients with hypochondriasis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26, 792–798. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.07.001
  • Weck, F., Neng, J.M. B., & Stangier, U. (2013). The effects of attention training on the perception of bodily sensations in patients with hypochondriasis: A randomized controlled pilot trial. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 37, 514–520. doi:10.1007/s10608-012-9482-3
  • Williams, P.G., Wasserman, M.S., & Lotto, A.J. (2003). Individual differences in self-assessed health: An information-processing investigation of health and illness cognitions. Health Psychology, 22, 3–11. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.22.1.3
  • Wittchen, H.-U., Zaudig, M., Spengler, P., Mombour, W., Hiller, W., Essau, C.A., … Williams, J. (1991). Wie zuverlässig ist operationalisierte Diagnostik?—Die Test–Retest-Reliabilität des Strukturierten Klinischen Interviews für DSM–III–R [How reliable are operationalized diagnoses?—The test–retest reliability of the structured clinical interview for DSM–III–R]. Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie, 20, 136–153.
  • Witthöft, M., Rist, F., & Bailer, J. (2008). Enhanced early emotional intrusion effects and proportional habituation of threat response for symptom and illness words in college students with elevated health anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32, 818–842. doi:10.1007/s10608-007-9159-5

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.