Neutral Job Titles and Occupational Stereotypes: When Legal and Psychological Realities Conflict

REFERENCES

• Age Discrimination in Employment Act . 1982 . 621 – 634 . 29 U.S.C. § §
   Google Scholar
• Allport , G. 1979 . The nature of prejudice. New York : Addison-Wesley. .
   Google Scholar
• Anastasi , A. 1982 . Psychological testing, , 5th ed. New York : Macmillan. .
   Google Scholar
• 1971 . Developments in the law: Employment discrimination and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . Harvard Law Review , 84 : 1109 – 1316 . Anonymous
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Archer , C. J. 1984 . Children's attitudes toward sex-role division in adult occupational roles . Sex Roles , 9 : 1197 – 1203 .
   Google Scholar
• Barnhart , R. S. 1983 . Children's sex-typed views of traditional occupational roles . School Counselor , 31 : 167 – 170 .
   Google Scholar
• Bem , S. and Bem , D. 1973 . Does sex-biased job advertising “aid and abet” sex discrimination? . Journal of Applied Psychology , 3 : 6 – 18 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bielby , W. T. and Baron , J. N. 1986 . Men and women at work: Sex segregation and statistical discrimination . American Journal of Sociology , 91 : 759 – 799 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blaske , D. M. 1984 . Occupational sex-typing by kindergarten and fourth-grade children . Psychological Reports , 54 : 795 – 801 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blumrosen , R. 1979 . University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform , 12 : 379 – 502 .
   Google Scholar
• California Fair Employment and Housing Act . West 1980 . West , Cal. Gov't Code 12900–12996
   Google Scholar
• California Fair Employment and Housing Commission Rules and Regulations, Fair Empl. Prac. Man . April 22 1988 . April 22 , (BNA) 453:869
   Google Scholar
• Califano v. Westcott . 1979 . 443 U.S. 76
   Google Scholar
• Cann , A. and Haight , J. M. 1983 . Children's perceptions of relative competence in sex-typed occupations . Sex Roles , 9 : 767 – 773 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chamallas , M. 1984 . Exploring the “entire spectrum” of disparate treatment under Title VII: Rules governing predominantly female jobs . University of Illinois Law Review , : 1 – 51 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , S. L. and Bunker , K. A. 1975 . Subtle effects of sex role stereotypes on recruiters' hiring decisions . Journal of Applied Psychology , 66 : 566 – 572 .
   Google Scholar
• Collins , J. , Reardon , M. and Waters , L. K. 1980 . Occupational interest and perceived personal success: Effects of gender, sex role orientation, and the sexual composition of the occupation . Psychological Reports , 47 : 1155 – 1159 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cordua , G. D. , McGraw , K. O. and Drabman , R. S. 1979 . Doctor or nurse: Children's perception of sex typed occupations . Child Development , 50 : 590 – 593 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corenblum , B. , Fischer , D. G. and Anderson , K. 1976 . Occupational differences and attribution of trait adjectives to ethnic groups . Psychological Reports , 39 : 535 – 542 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crew , J. C. 1983 . Age stereotypes as a function of sex, race, and vocational preference . Psychology , 20 : 25 – 29 .
   Google Scholar
• Crow , M. L. 1976 . Sex-role stereotyping is alive and well in sixth-graders . Elementary School Journal , 76 : 358 – 364 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diaz v. Pan Am . 1971 . World Airways, 442 F.2d 385 5th Cir.
   Google Scholar
• D.C. Commission on Human Rights Employment Guidelines: Specifications in Advertisements . August 1 1986 . August 1 , Emp. Prac. Guide (CCH) Para. 21,690.02
   Google Scholar
• Dothard v. Rawlinson . 1977 . 443 U.S. 321
   Google Scholar
• Dodd , J. E. 1977 . Overcoming occupational stereotypes related to sex and deafness . American Annals of the Deaf , 122 : 489 – 491 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Equal Employment Opportunity Commission . 1989a . Guidelines on discrimination because of sex. 29 C.F.R. § 1604
   Google Scholar
• Equal Employment Opportunity Commission . 1989b . Uniform guidelines on employee selection procedures 29 C.F.R. § 1607
   Google Scholar
• Everett , J. E. and Stening , B. W. 1980 . Intercultural interpersonal perceptions: A study of Japanese and Australian managers . Japanese Psychological Research , 22 : 42 – 47 .
   Google Scholar
• Fair Labor Standards Act . 1982 . 29 U.S.C. §§ 201–219
   Google Scholar
• Fiddell , L. S. 1970 . Empirical verification of sex discrimination in hiring practices in psychology . American Psychologist , 25 : 1094 – 1097 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner , D. G. and Discenza , R. 1988 . Sex effects in evaluating applicant qualifications: A reexamination . Sex Roles , 18 : 297 – 308 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garland , H. and Smith , G. B. 1981 . Occupational achievement motivation as a function of biological sex, sex-linked personality, and occupational stereotype . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 5 : 568 – 585 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garrett , C. S. , Ein , P. L. and Tremaine , L. 1977 . The development of gender stereotyping of adult occupations in elementary school children . Child Development , 48 : 507 – 512 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garza , R. T. and Lipton , J. P. 1978 . Culture, personality, and reactions to praise and criticism . Journal of Personality , 46 : 743 – 761 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garza , R. T. and Lipton , J. P. 1982 . “ Chicano social psychology. ” . In Chicano psychology, , 2d ed. Edited by: Martinez , J. L. New York : Academic Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Greene , A. L. , Sullivan , H. J. and Beyard , K. T. 1982 . Attitudinal effects of the use of role models in information about sex-typed careers . Journal of Educational Psychology. , 74 : 393 – 398 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregg , C. H. and Dobson , K. 1980 . Occupational sex role stereotyping and occupational interests in children . Elementary School Guidance and Counseling , 15 : 66 – 75 .
   Google Scholar
• Griggs v Duke Power Co . 1971 . 401 U.S. 424
   Google Scholar
• Gutek , B. A. 1988 . Sex segregation and women at work: A selective review . Applied Psychology: An International Review , 37 ( 2 ) : 103 – 120 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gutek , B. A. and Stevens , D. A. 1979 . Effects of sex of subject, sex of stimulus cue, and androgyny level on evaluations in work situations which evoke sex role stereotypes . Journal of Vocational Behavior , 14 : 23 – 32 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hageman , M. B. and Gladding , S. T. 1983 . The art of career exploration: Occupational sex-role stereotyping among elementary school children . Elementary School Guidance and Counseling , 17 : 280 – 287 .
   Google Scholar
• Hasselbart , S. 1977 . Women doctors win and male nurses lose: A study of sex role and occupational stereotypes . Sociology of Work and Occupations , 4 : 49 – 62 .
   Google Scholar
• Hayano , S. M. 1977 . The professional poker player: Career identification and the problem of respectability . Social Problems , 24 : 556 – 564 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heilman , M. E. 1979 . High school students' occupational interest as a function of projected sex ratios in male-dominated occupations . Journal of Applied Psychology , 43 : 22 – 34 .
   Google Scholar
• Hopkins v Price Waterhouse . 1985 . 618 F. Supp. 1109 (D.D.C.
   Google Scholar
• Imada , A. S. , Fletcher , C. and Dalessio , A. 1980 . Individual correlates of an occupational stereotype: A reexamination of the stereotype of accountants . Journal of Applied Psychology , 65 : 436 – 439 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Bhd. of Teamsters v. United States . 1977 . 431 U.S. 323
   Google Scholar
• Kahn , S. E. and Schroeder , A. S. 1980 . Counsellor bias in occupational choice for female students . Canadian Counsellor , 14 : 156 – 159 .
   Google Scholar
• Katz , P. A. 1986 . Modification of children's gender-stereotyped behavior: General issues and research considerations . Sex Roles , 14 : 591 – 602 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kentucky Commission on Human Rights Guidelines for Employment Advertising . January 8 1975 . January 8 , Emp. Prac. Guide (CCH) Para. 23,297
   Google Scholar
• Kimmel , D. C. 1988 . Ageism, psychology, and public policy . American Psychologist , 43 : 175 – 178 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konrad , A. M. and Gutek , B. A. 1987 . “ Theory and research on group composition: Applications to the status of women and ethnic minorities. ” . In Interpersonal Processes. Edited by: Oskamp , S. and Spacapan , S. Beverly Hills : Sage Publications. .
   Google Scholar
• Krefting , L. A. , Berger , P. K. and Wallace , M. J. 1978 . The contribution of sex distribution, job content, and occupational classification of job sex typing: Two studies . Journal of Vocational Behavior , 13 : 181 – 191 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaVine , L. O. 1982 . Parental power as a potential influence on girls' career choice . Child Development , 53 : 658 – 663 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Law , S. A. 1983 . Women, work, welfare, and the preservation of patriarchy . University of Pennsylvania Law Review , 4 : 1249 – 1320 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeBlanc v Southern Bell Telephone and Telegraph Co . 1971 . 333 F. Supp. 602 (E.D. La.
   Google Scholar
• Lee , J. Y. and Sugawara , A. I. 1982 . Awareness of sex-trait stereotypes among Korean children . Journal of Social Psychology , 117 : 161 – 170 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levinson , R. M. 1975 . Sex discrimination and employment practices: An experiment with unconventional job inquiries . Social Problems , 22 : 533 – 543 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis , B. D. 1976 . Birth order, religiosity, college major, and attitudes toward women in the work force . Psychological Reports , 39 : 993 – 994 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lifschitz , S. 1983 . Male and female careers: Sex-role stereotypes among high school students . Sex Roles , 9 : 725 – 735 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipton , J. P. 1987 . Stereotypes concerning musicians within symphony orchestras . Journal of Psychology , 121 : 85 – 94 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchack , J. A. 1978 . Occupational sex role stereotypes and social desirability among counselor trainees . Journal of Counseling Psychology , 25 : 172 – 175 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molm , L. D. 1978 . Sex role attitudes and the employment of married women: The direction of causality . Sociological Quarterly , 19 : 522 – 533 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morsbach , H. and Morsbach , G. 1967 . A cross-cultural investigation of occupational stereotypes in three South African groups . Journal of Social Psychology , 73 : 53 – 59 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• New Jersey Division on Civil Rights Discrimination in Employment Advertising Rules . May 29 1972 . May 29 , Emp. Prac. Guide (CCH) Para. 25,690
   Google Scholar
• New Jersey Division on Civil Rights Questions and Answers on Pre-employment Inquiries . October 1 1975 . October 1 , Emp. Prac. Guide (CCH) Para. 25,649
   Google Scholar
• O'Bryant , S. L. and Corder , C. R. 1978 . The effects of television on children's stereotyping of women's work roles . Journal of Vocational Behavior , 12 : 233 – 244 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Occupational Safety and Health Act . 1989 . 29 U.S.C. §§ 651–678. (1982 & Supp.
   Google Scholar
• Peterson , C. C. and McDonald , L. 1980 . Children's occupational sex-typing . Journal of Genetic Psychology , 136 : 145 – 146 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pittsburgh Press Co . 1972 . v. Pittsburgh Comm'n on Human Relations, 413 U.S. 376
   Google Scholar
• Powell , G. N. 1987 . The effects of sex and gender on recruitment . Academy of Management Review , 12 : 731 – 743 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pratt , A. B. 1975 . Exploring stereotypes of popular and unpopular occupations among women in general . Journal of Vocational Behavior , 6 : 145 – 164 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rath , R. and Mohanty , A. K. 1972 . Occupational stereotypes and preferences of a group of post-graduate students of Orissa . Indian Journal of Psychology , 47 : 197 – 211 .
   Google Scholar
• Rehabilitation Act . 1982 . 29 U.S.C. §§ 701–796
   Google Scholar
• Reskin , B. F. and Hartmann , H. I. , eds. 1986 . Women's work, men's work: Sex segregation on the job. Washington , D.C. : National Academy Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Riley , P. J. 1981 . The influence of gender on occupational aspirations of kindergarten children . Journal of Vocational Behavior , 19 : 240 – 250 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosen , B. and Jerdee , T. H. 1974 . Effects of applicants' sex and difficulty of job on evaluations of candidates for managerial positions . Journal of Applied Psychology , 59 : 511 – 512 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenthal , D. A. and Chapman , D. C. 1982 . The lady spaceman: Children's perceptions of sex-stereotyped occupations . Sex Roles , 8 : 959 – 965 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin , M. S. 1988 . Advertising and Title VIII: The discriminatory use of models in real estate advertisements . Yale Law Journal , 98 : 165 – 185 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruble , T. L. , Cohen , R. and Ruble , D. N. 1984 . Sex stereotypes: Occupational barriers for women . American Behavioral Scientist , 27 : 339 – 356 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saunders v General Services Corp . 1987 . 659 F. Supp. 1042 (E.D. Va.
   Google Scholar
• Serbin , L. A. and Unger , R. K. 1986 . Social change: Introduction . Sex Roles , 14 : 561 – 566 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw , E. A. 1972 . Differential impact of negative stereotyping in employee selection . Personnel Psychology , 25 : 333 – 338 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shepard , W. O. and Hess , D. T. 1975 . Attitudes in four age groups toward sex role division in adult occupations and activities . Journal of Vocational Behavior , 6 : 27 – 39 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shinar , E. H. 1975 . Sexual stereotypes of occupations . Journal of Vocational Behavior , 7 : 99 – 111 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slack v. Havens . 7 Fed. Empl. Prac. Cases (BNA) 885 (S.D. Cal, 1973), aff'd, 522 F.2d 1091 (9th Cir. 1975)
   Google Scholar
• Slusher , M. P. and Anderson , C. A. 1987 . When reality monitoring fails: The role of imagination in stereotype maintenance . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 52 : 653 – 662 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taub , N. 1980 . Keeping women in their place: Stereotyping per se as a form of employment discrimination . Boston College Law Review , 21 : 345 – 418 .
   Google Scholar
• Terborg , J. R. 1977 . Women in management: A research review . Journal of Applied Psychology , 62 : 647 – 664 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 1983 . Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2
   Google Scholar
• Tosi , H. L. and Einbender , S. W. 1985 . The effects of the type and amount of information in sex discrimination research: A meta-analysis . Academy of Management Journal , 28 : 712 – 723 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unger , R. K. and Sussman , L. E. 1986 . “I and thou”: Another barrier to societal change? . Sex Roles , 14 : 629 – 636 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Labor . 1977 . Dictionary of occupational titles, , 4th ed. Washington , D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office. .
   Google Scholar
• Wagner-Peyser Act . 1982 . 29 U.S.C. § 49
   Google Scholar
• Washington State Human Rights Commission Employment Rules . July 28 1983 . July 28 , Emp. Prac. Guide (CCH) Para. 28,497
   Google Scholar
• Watson v Fort Worth Bank and Trust . 1988 . 108 S. Ct, 2777
   Google Scholar
• Wyoming Fair Employment Commission Discrimination in Advertising Resolution . May 23 1985 . May 23 , Emp. Prac. Guide (CCH) Para. 29,335
   Google Scholar
• Yanico , B. J. 1980 . Students' self-reported amount of information about masculine” and “feminine” occupations . Vocational Guidance Quarterly , 28 : 344 – 350 .
   Google Scholar
• Yanico , B. J. 1982 . Androgyny and occupational sex–stereotyping of college students . Psychological Reports , 50 : 875 – 878 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar