The Perceived Leadership Communication Questionnaire (PLCQ): Development and Validation

REFERENCES

• Arnold, J.A., Arad, S., Rhoades, J.A., & Drasgow, F. (2000). The Empowering Leadership Questionnaire: The construction and validation of a new scale for measuring leader behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 249–269. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200005)21:3<249::AID-JOB10>3.0.CO;2-#
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakar, H.A., Dilbeck, K.E., & McCroskey, J.C. (2010). Mediating role of supervisory communication practices on relations between leader-member exchange and perceived employee commitment to workgroup. Communication Monographs, 77, 637–656. doi:10.1080/03637751.2010.499104
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnard, C.I. (1938). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bass, B.M. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industrial, military and educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Bass, B.M., & Avolio, B.J. (1995). MLQ Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire sampler set: Technical report, leader form, rater form, and scoring key for MLQ form 5x-short. Redwood City, CA: Mind Garden.
   Google Scholar
• Bentler, P.M., & Wu, E.J. C. (2005). EQS 6 structural equation modeling software (Version 6.1). [Software]. Encino, CA: Multivariate Software.
   Google Scholar
• Bentler, P.M., & Yuan, K.-H. (1999). Structural equation modeling with small samples: Test statistics. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 34, 181–197. doi:10.1207/S15327906Mb340203
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertrams, A., & Dickhäuser, O. (2009). High-school students’ need for cognition, self-control capacity, and school achievement: Testing a mediation hypothesis. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 135–138. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2008.06.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bortz, J., & Döring, N. (2006). Forschungsmethoden und Evaluation für Human- und Sozialwissenschaftler [Research methods and evaluation for human and social scientists] (4th ed.). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Boyatzis, R.E. (1982). The competent manager: A model for effective performance. New York, NY: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Briggs, S.R., & Cheek, J.M. (1986). The role of factor analysis in the development and evaluation of personality scales. Journal of Personality, 54, 106–148. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1986.tb00391.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browne, M.W. (2001). An overview of analytic rotation in exploratory factor analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 36, 111–150. doi:10.1207/S15327906MBR3601_05
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browne, M.W., Cudeck, R., Tateneni, K., & Mels, G. (2010). CEFA: Comprehensive Exploratory Factor Analysis (Version 3.04). [Software]. Retrieved from http://faculty.psy.ohio-state.edu/browne/
   Google Scholar
• Burisch, M. (1984). Approaches to personality inventory construction: A comparison of merits. American Psychologist, 39, 214–227. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.39.3.214
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cogliser, C.C., Schriesheim, C.A., Scandura, T.A., & Gardner, W.L. (2009). Balance in leader and follower perceptions of leader-member exchange: Relationships with performance and work attitudes. Leadership Quarterly, 20, 452–465. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.03.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, M.S. (2004). Leadership as the orchestration and improvisation of dialogue: Cognitive and communicative skills in conversations among leaders and subordinates. In D.V. Day, S.J. Zaccaro, & S.M. Halpin (Eds.), Leader development for transforming organizations. Growing leaders for tomorrow (pp. 177–208). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Conger, J.A., & Kanungo, R.N. (1994). Charismatic leadership in organizations: Perceived behavioral attributes and their measurement. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15, 439–452. doi:10.1002/job.4030150508
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cortina, J.M. (1993). What is coefficient alpha? An examination of theory and applications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 98–104. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.78.1.98
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahl, G. (1971). Zur Berechnung des Schwierigkeitsindex bei quantitativ abgestufter Aufgabenbewertung [Computing a difficulty index for rating scales]. Diagnostica, 17, 139–142.
   Google Scholar
• De Vries, R.E., Bakker-Pieper, A., & Oostenveld, W. (2010). Leadership = communication? The relations of leaders’ communication styles with leadership styles, knowledge sharing and leadership outcomes. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25, 367–380. doi:10.1007/s10869-009-9140-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabrigar, L.R., Wegener, D.T., MacCallum, R.C., & Strahan, E.J. (1999). Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological Methods, 4, 272–299. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.4.3.272
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fix, B., & Sias, P.M. (2006). Person-centered communication, leader-member exchange, and employee job satisfaction. Communication Research Reports, 23, 35–44. doi:10.1080/17464090500535855
   Google Scholar
• Flauto, F.J. (1999). Walking the talk: The relationship between leadership and communication competence. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 6, 86–97. doi:10.1177/107179199900600106
   Google Scholar
• Fleenor, J.W., Smither, J.W., Atwater, L.E., Braddy, P.W., & Sturm, R.E. (2010). Self–other rating agreement in leadership: A review. Leadership Quarterly, 21, 1005–1034. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.10.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fleishman, E.A., Mumford, M.D., Zaccaro, S.J., Levin, K.Y., Korotkin, A.J., & Hein, M.B. (1991). Taxonomic efforts in the description of leader behavior: A synthesis and functional interpretation. Leadership Quarterly, 2, 245–287. doi:10.1016/1048-9843(91)90016-U
   Google Scholar
• Graen, G.B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. Leadership Quarterly, 6, 219–247. doi:10.1016/1048-9843(95)90036-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hackman, J.R., & Oldham, G.R. (1975). Development of the Job Diagnostic Survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 159–170. doi:10.1037/h0076546
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hackman, M.Z., & Johnson, C.E. (2009). Leadership: A communication perspective (5th ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
   Google Scholar
• Halpin, A.W. (1957). Manual for the leader behavior description questionnaire. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University, Bureau of Business Research.
   Google Scholar
• Hertzsch, H., Schneider, F.M., & Maier, M. (2012). Zur Kommunikationskompetenz von Führungskräften – Vorschlag eines integrativen Rahmenmodells [The communication competence of management personnel - Suggestion of an integrative framework model]. In R. Reinhardt (Ed.), Wirtschaftspsychologie und Organisationserfolg [Business psychology and organizational success] (pp. 414–425). Lengerich, Germany: Pabst.
   Google Scholar
• House, R.J. (1998). Measures and assessments for the charismatic leadership approach: Scales, latent constructs, loadings, Cronbach alphas, and interclass correlations. In F. Dansereau & F.J. Yammarino (Eds.), Leadership. The multiple-level approaches: Contemporary and alternative (pp. 23–29). London, UK: JAI Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jablin, F.M. (1979). Superior–subordinate communication: The state of the art. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 1201–1222. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.86.6.1201
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jablin, F.M., Cude, R.L., House, A., Lee, J., & Roth, N.L. (1994). Conceptualization and comparison across multiple level of analysis: Communication competence in organizations. In L.O. Thayer & G.A. Barnett (Eds.), Organization - communication. Emerging perspectives (Vol. 149, pp. 114–140). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
   Google Scholar
• Jablin, F.M., & Sias, P.M. (2001). Communication competence. In F.M. Jablin & L. Putnam (Eds.), The new handbook of organizational communication. Advances in theory, research, and methods (pp. 819–864). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• John, O.P., & Soto, C.J. (2007). The importance of being valid: Reliability and the process of construct validation. In R.W. Robins, R.C. Fraley, & R.F. Krueger (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in personality psychology (pp. 461–494). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kramer, M.W. (1995). A longitudinal study of superior-subordinate communication during job transfers. Human Communication Research, 22, 39–64. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1995.tb00361.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine, K.J., Muenchen, R.A., & Brooks, A.M. (2010). Measuring transformational and charismatic leadership: Why isn't charisma measured? Communication Monographs, 77, 576–591. doi:10.1080/03637751.2010.499368
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liden, R.C., & Maslyn, J.M. (1998). Multidimensionality of leader-member exchange: An empirical assessment through scale development. Journal of Management, 24, 43–72. doi:10.1016/S0149-2063(99)80053-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luthans, F., & Larsen, J.K. (1986). How managers really communicate. Human Relations, 39, 161–178. doi:10.1177/001872678603900205
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madlock, P.E. (2008). The link between leadership style, communicator competence, and employee satisfaction. Journal of Business Communication, 45, 61–78. doi:10.1177/0021943607309351
   Google Scholar
• McCroskey, J.C., Andersen, J.F., Richmond, V.P., & Wheeless, L.R. (1981). Communication apprehension of elementary and secondary students and teachers. Communication Education, 30, 122–132. doi:10.1080/03634528109378461
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCroskey, J.C., & Richmond, V.P. (1982). Communication apprehension and shyness: Conceptual and operational distinctions. Central States Speech Journal, 33, 458–468. doi:10.1080/10510978209388452
   Google Scholar
• Monge, P.R., Bachman, S.G., Dillard, J.P., & Eisenberg, E.M. (1982). Communicator competence in the workplace: Model testing and scale development. In M. Burgoon (Ed.), Communication Yearbook (Vol. 149, pp. 505–527). Beverly Hills, CA: Transaction.
   Google Scholar
• Paul, T., & Schyns, B. (2010). Mehrdimensionale Skala zur Erfassung des Leader-Member Exchange (LMX-MDM nach Liden & Maslyn, 1998) - Übersetzung [Multidimensional scale for the assessment of leader–member exchange (LMX-MDM after Liden & Maslyn, 1998) – Translation]. In A. Glöckner-Rist (Ed.), Zusammenstellung sozialwissenschaftlicher Items und Skalen. ZIS Version 14.0 [Compilation of social science items and scales, version 14.0]. Bonn, Germany: GESIS.
   Google Scholar
• Paulhus, D.L. (1991). Measurement and control of response bias. In J.P. Robinson, F.M. Andrews, P.R. Shaver, & L.S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes (pp. 17–59). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pauls, C.A., & Stemmler, G. (2003). Substance and bias in social desirability responding. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 263–275. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00187-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., & Bommer, W.H. (1996). Transformational leader behaviors and substitutes for leadership as determinants of employee satisfaction, commitment, trust, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal of Management, 22, 259–298. doi:10.1016/S0149-2063(96)90049-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Moorman, R.H., & Fetter, R. (1990). Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 1, 107–142. doi:10.1016/1048-9843(90)90009-7
   Google Scholar
• Rafferty, A.E., & Griffin, M.A. (2004). Dimensions of transformational leadership: Conceptual and empirical extensions. Leadership Quarterly, 15, 329–354. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.02.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richmond, V.P., McCroskey, J.C., & Johnson, A.D. (2003). Development of the nonverbal immediacy scale (NIS): Measures of self- and other-perceived nonverbal immediacy. Communication Quarterly, 51, 504–517. doi:10.1080/01463370309370170
   Google Scholar
• Roberts, K.H., & O’Reilly, C.A. (1974). Measuring organizational communication. Journal of Applied Psychology, 59, 321–326. doi:10.1037/h0036660
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt, K.H., & Kleinbeck, U. (1999). Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS - deutsche Fassung) [Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS - German version)]. In H. Dunckel (Ed.), Handbuch psychologischer Arbeitsanalyseverfahren [Handbook of psychological job analysis instruments] (pp. 205–230). Zürich, Switzerland: vdf Hochschulverlag.
   Google Scholar
• Schmitt, N. (1996). Uses and abuses of coefficient alpha. Psychological Assessment, 8, 350–353. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.8.4.350
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schweizer, K. (2010). Some guidelines concerning the modeling of traits and abilities in test construction. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 26, 1–2. doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharbrough, W.C., Simmons, S.A., & Cantrill, D.A. (2006). Motivating language in industry. Journal of Business Communication, 43, 322–343. doi:10.1177/0021943606291712
   Google Scholar
• Sperka, M., & Rózsa, J. (2007). KOMMINO: Fragebogen zur Erfassung der Kommunikation in Organisationen. Manual [Questionnaire for the assessment of communication in organizations. Manual]. Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe.
   Google Scholar
• Steyer, R., Schmitt, M., & Eid, M. (1999). Latent state–trait theory and research in personality and individual differences. European Journal of Personality, 13, 389–408. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0984(199909/10)13:5<389::AID-PER361>3.0.CO;2-A
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stogdill, R.M. (1963). Manual for the leader behavior description questionnaire: Form XII. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University, Bureau of Business Research.
   Google Scholar
• Tourish, D., & Hargie, O. (2009). Communication and organizational success. In O. Hargie & D. Tourish (Eds.), Auditing organizational communication. A handbook of research, theory and practice (2nd ed., pp. 3–26). London, UK: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Vandenberg, R.J., & Lance, C.E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3, 4–69. doi:10.1177/109442810031002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, S.G., Finch, J.F., & Curran, P.J. (1995). Structural equation models with nonnormal variables: Problems and remedies. In R.H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 56–75). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Winkler, N., Kroh, M., & Spiess, M. (2006). Entwicklung einer deutschen Kurzskala zur zweidimensionalen Messung von sozialer Erwünschtheit [Development of a German short scale for measuring two dimensions of social desirability] (Discussion Papers No. 579). Berlin, Germany: DIW.
   Google Scholar