7,075
Views
86
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Annual Review of Sex Research Special Issue

Surveying Pornography Use: A Shaky Science Resting on Poor Measurement Foundations

ORCID Icon, , , ORCID Icon, &

References

  • Alexander, M. G., & Fisher, T. D. (2003). Truth and consequences: Using the bogus pipeline to examine sex differences in self-reported sexuality. Journal of Sex Research, 40, 27–35. doi:10.1080/00224490309552164
  • Ashton, S., McDonald, K., & Kirkman, M. (2019). What does ‘pornography’ mean in the digital age? Revisiting a definition for social science researchers. Porn Studies, 1–25. doi:10.1080/23268743.2018.1544096
  • Baer, J. L., Kohut, T., & Fisher, W. A. (2015). Is pornography use associated with anti-woman sexual aggression? Re-examining the confluence model with third variable considerations. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 24, 160–173. doi:10.3138/cjhs.242-A6
  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc.
  • Bandura, A., & Walters, R. (1963). Social learning and personality development. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
  • Barron, M., & Kimmel, M. (2000). Sexual violence in three pornographic media: Toward a sociological explanation. Journal of Sex Research, 37, 161–168. doi:10.1080/00224490009552033
  • Beyens, I., Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2015). Early adolescent boys’ exposure to Internet pornography: Relationships to pubertal timing, sensation seeking, and academic performance. Journal of Early Adolescence, 35, 1045–1068. doi:10.1177/0272431614548069
  • Bogaert, A. F. (2001). Personality, individual differences, and preferences for the sexual media. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 30, 29–53. doi:10.1023/a:1026416723291
  • Bogaert, A. F., Turkovich, D. A., & Hafer, C. L. (1993). A content analysis of Playboy centrefolds from 1953 through 1990: Changes in explicitness, objectification, and model’s age. Journal of Sex Research, 30, 135–139. doi:10.1080/00224499309551693
  • Bridges, A. J., Wosnitzer, R., Scharrer, E., Sun, C., & Liberman, R. (2010). Aggression and sexual behavior in best-selling pornography videos: A content analysis update. Violence Against Women, 16, 1065–1085. doi:10.1177/1077801210382866
  • Brosius, H., Weaver, J. B., & Staab, J. F. (1993). Exploring the social and sexual “reality” of contemporary pornography. Journal of Sex Research, 30, 161–170. doi:10.1080/00224499309551697
  • Brown, D., & Bryant, J. (1989). The manifest content of pornography. In D. Zillmann & J. Bryant (Eds.), Pornography: Research advances and policy considerations (pp. 3–24). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
  • Brown, J. D., & L’Engle, K. L. (2009). X-rated sexual attitudes and behaviors associated with U.S. early adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit media. Communication Research, 36, 129–151. doi:10.1177/0093650208326465
  • Bryant, J., & Brown, D. (1989). Uses of pornography. In D. Zillmann & J. Bryant (Eds.), Pornography: Research advances and policy considerations (pp. 25–56). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
  • Byrne, D. (1976). Social psychology and the study of sexual behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 3, 3–30. doi:10.1177/014616727600300102
  • Byrne, D., Fisher, J. D., Lamberth, J., & Mitchell, H. E. (1974). Evaluations of erotica: Facts or feelings? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 111–116. doi:10.1037/h0035731
  • Campbell, L., & Kohut, T. (2017). The use and effects of pornography in romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13, 6–10. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.004
  • Carroll, J. S., Busby, D. M., Willoughby, B. J., & Brown, C. C. (2017). The porn gap: Differences in men’s and women’s pornography patterns in couple relationships. Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy, 16, 1–18. doi:10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796
  • Carroll, J. S., Padilla-walker, L. M., Nelson, L. J., Olson, C. D., Barry, C. M., & Madsen, S. D. (2008). Generation XXX: Pornography use among emerging adults. Journal of Adolescent Research, 23, 6–30. doi:10.1177/0743558407306348
  • Check, J. V. P., & Guloien, T. H. (1989). Reported proclivity for coercive sex following repeated exposure ot sexually violent pornography, non violent dehumanizing pornography, and erotica. In D. Zillmann & J. Bryant (Eds.), Pornography: Research advances and policy considerations (pp. 159–184). Hillsdale, NJ: Routledge.
  • Chivers, M. L., Seto, M. C., & Blanchard, R. (2007). Gender and sexual orientation differences in sexual response to sexual activities versus gender of actors in sexual films. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 1108–1121. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.6.1108
  • Ciclitira, K. (2002). Researching pornography and sexual bodies. The Psychologist, 15, 191–194. Retrieved from http://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-15/edition-4/body
  • Cowan, G., & Campbell, R. R. (1994). Racism and sexism in interracial pornography. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 323–338. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00459.x
  • Cowan, G., Lee, C., Levy, D., & Snyder, D. (1988). Dominance and inequality in X-rated videocassettes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12, 299–311. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1988.tb00945.x
  • Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281–302. doi:10.1037/h0040957
  • Davis, C. M., & Bauserman, R. (1993). Exposure to sexually explicit materials: An attitude change perspective. Annual Review of Sex Research, 4, 121–209. doi:10.1080/10532528.1993.10559887
  • Dietz, P. E., & Evans, B. (1982). Pornographic imagery and prevalence of paraphilia. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 1493–1495. doi:10.1176/ajp.139.11.1490
  • Donnerstein, E., & Berkowitz, L. (1981). Victim reactions in aggressive erotic films as a factor in violence against women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 710–724. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.41.4.710
  • Donnerstein, E., Linz, D., & Penrod, S. (1987). The question of pornography. Research findings and policy considerations. New York, NY: Free Press.
  • Dugan, A. (2018). More Americans say pornography is morally acceptable. Retrieved from https://news.gallup.com/poll/235280/americans-say-pornography-morally-acceptable.aspx
  • Elliot, G. (1970). Against pornography. In D. Hughes (Ed.), Perspectives on pornography (pp. 72–95). New York, NY: St Martin’s Press.
  • Ellis, D. A., Davidson, B. I., Shaw, H., & Geyer, K. (2018). Do smart phone usage scales predict use? International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 130, 86–92. doi:10.31234/osf.io/6fjr7
  • Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
  • Fisher, W. A., & Barak, A. (1991). Pornography, erotica, and behavior: More questions than answers. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 14, 65–83. doi:10.1016/0160-2527(91)90025-I
  • Fisher, W. A., & Barak, A. (2001). Internet pornography: A social psychological perspective on internet sexuality. Journal of Sex Research, 38, 312–323. doi:10.1080/00224490109552102
  • Fisher, W. A., & Byrne, D. (1978). Individual differences in affective, evaluative, and behavioral responses to an erotic film. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 8, 355–365. doi:10.1111/jasp.1978.8.issue-4
  • Fisher, W. A., & Grenier, G. (1994). Violent pornography, antiwoman thoughts, and antiwoman acts: In search of reliable effects. Journal of Sex Research, 31, 23–28. doi:10.1080/00224499409551727
  • Fisher, W. A., White, L. A., Byrne, D., & Kelley, K. (1988). Erotophobia-erotophilia as a dimension of personality. Journal of Sex Research, 25, 123–151. doi:10.1080/00224498809551448
  • Flake, J. K., & Fried, E. I. (2019). Measurement schmeasurement: Questionable measurement practices and how to avoid them. PsyArXiv. doi:10.31234/osf.io/hs7wm
  • Flake, J. K., Pek, J., Hehman, E., & Thorndike, E. (2017). Construct validation in social and personality research. Current Practice and Recommendations, 8, 370–378. doi:10.1177/1948550617693063
  • Flood, M. (2009). The harms of pornography exposure among children and young people. Child Abuse Review, 18, 384–400. doi:10.1002/car.1092
  • Foubert, J. D., & Rizzo, A. (2013). Integrating religiosity and pornography use into the prediction of bystander efficacy and willingness to prevent sexual assault. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 41, 242–251. doi:10.1177/009164711304100306
  • Frable, D. E. S., Johnson, A. E., & Kellman, H. (1997). Seeing masculine men, sexy women, and gender differences: Exposure to pornography and cognitive constructions of gender. Journal of Personality, 65, 311–355. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1997.tb00957.x
  • Fried, E. I., & Flake, J. K. (2018). Measurement matters. APS Observer, 31. Retrieved from https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/measurement-matters
  • Fried, E. I., van Borkulo, C. D., Epskamp, S., Schoevers, R. A., Tuerlinckx, F., & Borsboom, D. (2016). Measuring depression over time … or not? Lack of unidimensionality and longitudinal measurement invariance in four common rating scales of depression. Psychological Assessment, 28, 1354–1367. doi:10.1037/pas0000275
  • Fritz, N., & Paul, B. (2017). From orgasms to spanking: A content analysis of the agentic and objectifying sexual scripts in feminist, for women, and mainstream pornography. Sex Roles, 77, 639–652. doi:10.1007/s11199-017-0759-6
  • Gadermann, A. M., Guhn, M., Zumbo, B. D., & Columbia, B. (2012). Estimating ordinal reliability for Likert-type and ordinal item response data: A conceptual, empirical, and practical guide. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 17. Retrieved from https://pareonline.net/pdf/v17n3.pdf
  • Garcia, L. T. (1986). Exposure to pornography and attitudes about women and rape: A correlational study. Journal of Sex Research, 22, 378–385. doi:10.1080/00224498609551316
  • Garcia, L. T., & Milano, L. (1991). A content analysis of erotic videos. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 3, 95–103. doi:10.1300/J056v03n02_07
  • Gehlbach, H., & Brinkworth, M. E. (2011). Measure twice, cut down error: A process for enhancing the validity of survey scales. Review of General Psychology, 15, 380–387. doi:10.1037/a0025704
  • Goodson, P., McCormick, D., & Evans, A. (2001). Searching for sexually explicit materials on the internet: An exploratory study of college students’ behavior and attitudes. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 30, 101–118. doi:10.1023/A:1002724116437
  • Gossett, J. L., & Byrne, S. (2002). “Click here”: A content analysis of internet rape sites. Gender & Society, 16, 689–709. doi:10.1177/089124302236992
  • Grubbs, J. B., & Perry, S. L. (2019). Moral incongruence and pornography use: A critical review and integration. Journal of Sex Research, 56, 29–37. doi:10.1080/00224499.2018.1427204
  • Grubbs, J. B., Perry, S. L., Wilt, J. A., & Reid, R. C. (2019). Pornography problems due to moral incongruence: An integrative model with a systematic review and meta-analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48, 397–415. doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1248-x
  • Grubbs, J. B., Stauner, N., Exline, J. J., Pargament, K. I., & Lindberg, M. J. (2015). Perceived addiction to internet pornography and psychological distress: Examining relationships concurrently and over time. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 29, 1056–1067. doi:10.1037/adb0000114
  • Grubbs, J. B., Wright, P. J., Braden, A. L., Wilt, J. A., & Kraus, S. W. (2019). Internet pornography use and sexual motivation: A systematic review and integration. Annals of the International Communication Association, 8985, 1–39. doi:10.1080/23808985.2019.1584045
  • Gunter, B. (2001). Media sex: What are the issues? New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Hald, G. M. (2006). Gender differences in pornography consumption among young heterosexual Danish adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 577–585. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9064-0
  • Hald, G. M., & Malamuth, N. M. (2008). Self-perceived effects of pornography consumption. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37, 614–625. doi:10.1007/s10508-007-9212-1
  • Hald, G. M., Malamuth, N. M., & Yuen, C. (2010). Pornography and attitudes supporting violence against women: Revisiting the relationship in nonexperimental studies. Aggressive Behavior, 36, 14–20. doi:10.1002/ab.20328
  • Hald, G. M., & Štulhofer, A. (2016a). Authors’ correction letter. Journal of Sex Research, 53, 894. doi:10.1080/00224499.2016.1140487
  • Hald, G. M., & Štulhofer, A. (2016b). What types of pornography do people use and do they cluster? Assessing types and categories of pornography consumption in a large-scale online sample. Journal of Sex Research, 53, 849–859. doi:10.1080/00224499.2015.1065953
  • Hardy, S. A., Steelman, M. A., Coyne, S. M., & Ridge, R. D. (2013). Adolescent religiousness as a protective factor against pornography use. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 34, 131–139. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2012.12.002
  • Harmon, D., & Boeringer, S. B. (1997). A content analysis of Internet-accessible written pornographic depictions. Electronic Journal of Sociology, 3. Retrieved from https://www.sociology.org/ejs-archives/vol003.001/boeringer.html.
  • Heiman, J. R. (1977). A psychophysiological exploration of sexual arousal patterns in females and males. Psychophysiology, 14, 266–274. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1977.tb01173.x
  • Hong, Y., Li, X., Mao, R., & Stanton, B. (2007). Internet use among Chinese college students: Implications for sex education and HIV prevention. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 10, 161–169. doi:10.1089/cpb.2006.9973
  • Huberman, J. S., Maracle, A. C., & Chivers, M. L. (2014). Gender-specificity of women’s and men’s self-reported attention to sexual stimuli. Journal of Sex Research, 1–13. doi:10.1080/00224499.2014.951424
  • Kendrick, W. (1987). The secret museum: Pornography in modern culture. New York, NY: Viking.
  • Klaassen, M. J. E., & Peter, J. (2015). Gender (in)equality in Internet pornography: A content analysis of popular pornographic Internet videos. Journal of Sex Research, 52, 721–735. doi:10.1080/00224499.2014.976781
  • Kohut, T. (2014). An empirical investigation of the concept of “pornography” (Doctoral Dissertation). University of Western Ontario, London, Canada. Retrieved from https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/2063/
  • Kohut, T., Balzarini, R. N., Fisher, W. A., & Campbell, L. (2018). Pornography’s associations with open sexual communication and relationship closeness vary as a function of dyadic patterns of pornography use within heterosexual relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 35, 655–676. doi:10.1177/0265407517743096
  • Kohut, T., & Campbell, L. (2019). Premature speculation concerning pornography’s effects on relationships. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48, 2255–2259. doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1389-y
  • Kohut, T., & Fisher, W. A. (2013). The impact of brief exposure to sexually explicit video clips on partnered female clitoral self-stimulation, orgasm and sexual satisfaction. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 22, 40–50. doi:10.3138/cjhs.935
  • Kohut, T., Fisher, W. A., & Campbell, L. (2017). Perceived effects of pornography on the couple relationship: Initial findings of open-ended, participant-informed, “bottom-up” research. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 585–602. doi:10.1007/s10508-016-0783-6
  • Kuhn, K.-A., Voges, K., Pope, N., & Bloxsome, E. (2007). Pornography and erotica: Definitions and prevalence. International nonprofit and social marketing conference social entrepreneurship, social change and sustainability (pp. 165–173). Brisbane, Australia. Retrieved from https://eprints.qut.edu.au/27717/2/27717.pdf
  • Leonhardt, N. D., Spencer, T. J., Butler, M. H., & Theobald, A. C. (2018). An organizational framework for sexual media’s influence on short-term versus long-term sexual quality. Archives of Sexual Behavior. doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1209-4
  • Leonhardt, N. D., & Willoughby, B. J. (2019). Pornography, provocative sexual media, and their differing associations with multiple aspects of sexual satisfaction. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36, 618–641. doi:10.1177/0265407517739162
  • Lo, V., Neilan, E., Sun, M.-P., & Chiang, S.-I. (1999). Exposure of Taiwanese adolescents to pornographic media and its impact on sexual attitudes and behaviour. Asian Journal of Communication, 9, 50–71. doi:10.1080/01292989909359614
  • Maas, M. K., Vasilenko, S. A., & Willoughby, B. J. (2018). A dyadic approach to pornography use and relationship satisfaction among heterosexual couples: The role of pornography acceptance and anxious attachment. Journal of Sex Research, 55, 772–782. doi:10.1080/00224499.2018.1440281
  • MacInnis, C. C., & Hodson, G. (2016). Surfing for sexual sin: Relations between religiousness and viewing sexual content online. Sexual Addiction and Compulsivity, 23, 196–210. doi:10.1080/10720162.2015.1130000
  • Malamuth, N. M. (2018). “Adding fuel to the fire”? Does exposure to non-consenting adult or to child pornography increase risk of sexual aggression? Aggression and Violent Behavior, 41, 74–89. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2018.02.013
  • Malamuth, N. M., Addison, T., & Koss, M. P. (2000). Pornography and sexual aggression: Are there reliable effects and can we understand them? Annual Review of Sex Research, 11, 26–91. doi:10.1080/10532528.2000.10559784
  • Malamuth, N. M., & Ceniti, J. (1986). Repeated exposure to violent and nonviolent pornography: Likelihood of raping ratings and laboratory aggression against women. Aggressive Behavior, 12, 129–137. doi:10.1002/1098-2337(1986)12:2<129::AID-AB2480120207>3.0.CO;2-P
  • Malamuth, N. M., & Donnerstein, E. (Eds.). (1984). Pornography and sexual aggression. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, Inc.
  • Malamuth, N. M., Heim, M., & Feshbach, S. (1980). Sexual responsiveness of college students to rape depictions: Inhibitory and disinhibitory effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 399–408. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.38.3.399
  • Marshall, E. A., & Miller, H. A. (2019). Consistently inconsistent: A systematic review of the measurement of pornography use. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 48, 169–179. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2019.08.019
  • Maul, A. (2017). Rethinking traditional methods of survey validation. Measurement, 15, 51–69. doi:10.1080/15366367.2017.1348108
  • McCloskey, M. E., & Glucksberg, S. (1978). Natural categories: Well defined or fuzzy sets? Memory & Cognition, 6, 462–472. doi:10.3758/BF03197480
  • McDowall, J. (2008). Erotic, pornographic, or obscene: Factors influencing the perception of photographs of the nude. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 26, 93–115. doi:10.2190/EM.26.1.g
  • McKee, A. (2015). Methodological issues in defining aggression for content analyses of sexually explicit material. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 81–87. doi:10.1007/s10508-013-0253-3
  • McKee, A., Byron, P., Litsou, K., & Ingham, R. (2019). An interdisciplinary definition of pornography: Results from a global Delphi panel. Archives of Sexual Behavior. doi:10.1007/s10508-019-01554-4
  • McNeish, D. (2018). Psychological methods thanks coefficient alpha, we’ll take it from here. Psychological Methods, 23, 412–433. doi:10.1037/met0000144
  • Mehta, M. D., & Plaza, D. (1997). Content analysis of pornographic images available on the Internet. The Information Society, 13, 153–161. doi:10.1080/019722497129179
  • Mellor, E., & Duff, S. (2019). The use of pornography and the relationship between pornography exposure and sexual offending in males: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 46, 116–126. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2019.02.003
  • Mesch, G. S. (2009). Social bonds and Internet pornographic exposure among adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 601–618. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.06.004
  • Mitchell, K. J., Finkelhor, D., & Wolak, J. (2003). The exposure of youth to unwanted sexual material on the Internet. Youth & Society, 34(3), 330–358. doi:10.1177/0044118x02250123
  • Morgan, E. M. (2011). Associations between young adults’ use of sexually explicit materials and their sexual preferences, behaviors, and satisfaction. Journal of Sex Research, 48, 520–530. doi:10.1080/00224499.2010.543960
  • Morrison, T. G., Bearden, A., Harriman, R. L., Morrison, M. A., & Ellis, S. R. (2004). Correlates of exposure to sexually explicit material among Canadian post-secondary students. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 13, 143–156. Retrieved from http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-17644365811&partnerID=tZOtx3y1
  • Mosher, D. L. (1988). Pornography defined: Sexual involvement theory, narrative context, and goodness-of-fit. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 1, 67–85. doi:10.1300/J056v01n01_06
  • Mundorf, N., D’Alessio, D., Allen, M., & Emmers-Sommer, T. (2006). Effects of pornography. In R. W. Preiss, B. M. Gayle, N. Burrell, M. Allen, & J. Bryant (Eds.), Mass media effects research: Advances through meta-analysis (pp. 173–189). New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Newstrom, N. P., & Harris, S. M. (2016). Pornography and couples: What does the research tell us? Contemporary Family Therapy, 38, 412–423. doi:10.1007/s10591-016-9396-4
  • O’Reilly, S., Knox, D., & Zusman, M. E. (2007). College student attitudes toward pornography use. College Student Journal, 41, 402–406.
  • Paasonen, S. (2006). Email from Nancy Nutsucker: Representation and gendered address in online pornography. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 9, 403–420. doi:10.1177/1367549406069065
  • Palmer, C. E. (1979). Pornographic comics: A content analysis. Journal of Sex Research, 15, 285–298. doi:10.1080/00224497909551052
  • Palys, T. S. (1986). Testing the common wisdom: The social content of video pornography. Canadian Psychology, 27, 22–35. doi:10.1037/h0079859
  • Perry, S. L. (2016). From bad to worse? Pornography consumption, spousal religiosity, gender, and marital quality. Sociological Forum, 31, 441–464. doi:10.1111/socf.12252
  • Perry, S. L. (2018). Pornography use and depressive symptoms: Examining the role of moral incongruence. Society and Mental Health, 8, 195–213. doi:10.1177/2156869317728373
  • Perry, S. L. (2019). Is the link between pornography use and relational happiness really more about masturbation? Results from two national surveys. Journal of Sex Research, 1–13. doi:10.1080/00224499.2018.1556772
  • Perry, S. L., & Schleifer, C. (2018). Till porn do us part? A longitudinal examination of pornography use and divorce. Journal of Sex Research, 55, 284–296. doi:10.1080/00224499.2017.1317709
  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2006). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit material on the Internet. Communication Research, 33, 178–204. doi:10.1177/0093650205285369
  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2009). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit internet material and sexual satisfaction: A longitudinal study. Human Communication Research, 35, 171–194. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2009.01343.x
  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2011a). The impact of “forgiving” introductions on the reporting of sensitive behavior in surveys: The role of social desirability response style and developmental status. Public Opinion Quarterly, 69, 779–787. doi:10.1093/poq/nfr041
  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2011b). The use of sexually explicit internet material and its antecedents: A longitudinal comparison of adolescents and adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 1015–1025. doi:10.1007/s10508-010-9644-x
  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2016). Adolescents and pornography: A review of 20 years of research. Journal of Sex Research, 53, 509–531. doi:10.1080/00224499.2016.1143441
  • Petersen, J. L., & Hyde, J. S. (2010). A meta-analytic review of research on gender differences in sexuality, 1993–2007. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 21–38. doi:10.1037/a0017504
  • Peterson, Z. D., & Janssen, E. (2007). Ambivalent affect and sexual response: The impact of co-occurring positive and negative emotions on subjective and physiological sexual responses to erotic stimuli. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 793–807. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9145-0
  • Prause, N. (2019). Porn is for masturbation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48, 2271–2277. doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1209-4
  • Quackenbush, D. M., Strassberg, D. S., & Turner, C. W. (1995). Gender effects of romantic themes in erotica. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 24, 21–35. doi:10.1007/BF01541986
  • Rasmussen, K. R., & Bierman, A. (2016). How does religious attendance shape trajectories of pornography use across adolescence? Journal of Adolescence, 49, 191–203. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.03.017
  • Rasmussen, K. R., & Bierman, A. (2017). Religious and community hurdles to pornography consumption: A national study of emerging adults. Emerging Adulthood, 5, 431–442. doi:10.1177/2167696817702066
  • Rasmussen, K. R., Grubbs, J. B., Pargament, K. I., & Exline, J. J. (2018). Social desirability bias in pornography-related self-reports: The role of religion. Journal of Sex Research, 55, 381–394. doi:10.1080/00224499.2017.1399196
  • Reed, J. P., & Reed, R. S. (1972). P.R.U.D.E.S. (Pornography research using direct erotic stimuli). The Journal of Sex Research, 8, 237–246. doi:10.1080/00224497209550756
  • Reis, H. T. (2007). Steps toward the ripening of relationship science. Personal Relationships, 14, 1–23. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2006.00139.x
  • Revilla, M. A., Saris, W. E., & Krosnick, J. A. (2014). Choosing the number of categories in agree-disagree scales. Sociological Methods and Research, 43, 73–97. doi:10.1177/0049124113509605
  • Rosegrant, J. (1986). Contributions to psychohistory: X. Fetish symbols in Playboy centerfolds. Psychological Reports, 59, 623–631. doi:10.2466/pr0.1986.59.2.623
  • Rotter, J. B. (1954). Social learning and clinical psychology. Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
  • Sakaluk, J. K. (2019). Expanding statistical frontiers in sexual science: Taxometric, invariance, and equivalence testing. Journal of Sex Research, 56, 475–510. doi:10.1080/00224499.2019.1568377
  • Sarch, A. (1997). Those dirty ads! Birth control ads in the 1920s and 1930s. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 14, 31–48. doi:10.1080/15295039709366995
  • Scharkow, M. (2016). The accuracy of self-reported Internet use — A validation study using client log data. Communication Methods and Measures, 10, 13–27. doi:10.1080/19312458.2015.1118446
  • Scott, J. E., & Cuvelier, S. J. (1987a). Sexual violence in Playboy magazine: A longitudinal content analysis. Journal of Sex Research, 23, 534–539. doi:10.1080/00224498709551389
  • Scott, J. E., & Cuvelier, S. J. (1987b). Sexual violence in Playboy magazine. A longitudinal analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 16, 279–288. doi:10.1007/BF01542137
  • Scott, J. E., & Cuvelier, S. J. (1993). Violence and sexual violence in pornography: Is it really increasing? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 22, 357–371. doi:10.1007/bf01542124
  • Seto, M. C., Maric, A., & Barbaree, H. E. (2001). The role of pornography in the etiology of sexual aggression. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 6, 35–53. doi:10.1016/S1359-1789(99)00007-5
  • Short, M. B., Black, L., Smith, A. H., Wetterneck, C. T., & Wells, D. E. (2012). A review of Internet pornography use research: Methodology and content from the past 10 Years. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15, 13–23. doi:10.1089/cyber.2010.0477
  • Simms, L. J. (2008). Classical and modern methods of psychological scale construction. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 414–433. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00044.x
  • Smith, D. D. (1976). The social content of pornography. Journal of Communication, 26, 16–24. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1976.tb01351.x
  • Smith, T. W., Davern, M., Freese, J., & Morgan, S. L. (2019). General social surveys, 1972–2018: Cumulative codebook [Codebook]. Retrieved from http://gss.norc.org/Documents/codebook/gss_codebook.zip
  • Sobell, L. C., & Sobell, M. B. (1992). Timeline follow-back method: A technique for assessing self-reported alcohol consumption. In R. Z. Litten & J. P. Allen (Eds.), Measuring alcohol consumption: psychological and biochemical methods (pp. 41–72). Totowa, NJ: The Humana Press Inc. doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-0357-5_3
  • Stevens, S. S. (1946). On the theory of scales of measurement. Science, 103, 677–680. doi:10.1126/science.103.2684.677
  • Szymanski, D. M., & Stewart-Richardson, D. N. (2014). Psychological, relational, and sexual correlates of pornography use on young adult heterosexual men in romantic relationships. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 22, 64–82. doi:10.3149/jms.2201.64
  • Træen, B., & Daneback, K. (2013). The use of pornography and sexual behaviour among Norwegian men and women of differing sexual orientation. Sexologies, 22, e41–e48. doi:10.1016/j.sexol.2012.03.001
  • Træen, B., Nilson, T. S., & Stigum, H. (2006). Use of pornography in traditional media and on the Internet in Norway. Journal of Sex Research, 43, 245–254. doi:10.1080/00224490609552323
  • Turnbull, D., & Brown, M. (1977). Attitudes towards homosexuality and male and female reactions to homosexual and heterosexual slides. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 9, 68–80. doi:10.1037/h0081610
  • Tylka, T. L. (2015). No harm in looking, right? Men’s pornography consumption, body image, and well-being. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 16, 97–107. doi:10.1037/a0035774
  • U.S. Department of Justice. (1986). Attorney General’s commission on pornography: Final report. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
  • Vaillancourt-Morel, M.-P., Daspe, M.-È., Charbonneau-Lefebvre, V., & Bosisio, M. (2019). Pornography use in adult mixed-sex romantic relationships: Context and correlates. Current Sexual Health Reports, 11, 35–43. doi:10.1007/s11930-019-00190-2
  • van Oosten, J. M. F. (2016). Sexually explicit Internet material and adolescents’ sexual uncertainty: The role of disposition-content congruency. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45, 1011–1022. doi:10.1007/s10508-015-0594-1
  • Vanden Abeele, M., Campbell, S. W., Eggermont, S., & Roe, K. (2014). Sexting, mobile porn use, and peer group dynamics: Boys’ and girls’ self-perceived popularity, need for popularity, and perceived peer pressure. Media Psychology, 17, 6–33. doi:10.1080/15213269.2013.801725
  • Vandenbosch, L., & van Oosten, J. M. F. (2017). The relationship between online pornography and the sexual objectification of women: The attenuating role of porn literacy education. Journal of Communication, 67, 1015–1036. doi:10.1111/jcom.12341
  • Vannier, S. A., Currie, A. B., & O’Sullivan, L. F. (2014). Schoolgirls and soccer moms: A content analysis of free “teen” and “MILF” online pornography. Journal of Sex Research, 51, 253–264. doi:10.1080/00224499.2013.829795
  • Vaske, J. J., Beaman, J., & Sponarski, C. C. (2017). Rethinking internal consistency in Cronbach’s alpha. Leisure Sciences, 39, 163–173. doi:10.1080/01490400.2015.1127189
  • Velezmoro, R., Negy, C., & Livia, J. (2012). Online sexual activity: Cross-national comparison between United States and Peruvian college students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41, 1015–1024. doi:10.1007/s10508-011-9862-x
  • Vogels, E. A. (2018). Loving oneself: The associations among sexually explicit media, body image, and perceived realism. Journal of Sex Research, 56, 1–13. doi:10.1080/00224499.2018.1475546
  • Vogels, E. A., & O’Sullivan, L. F. (2019). The relationship among online sexually explicit material exposure to, desire for, and participation in rough sex. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48, 653–665. doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1290-8
  • Ware, E. E., Brown, M., Amoroso, D. M., Pilkey, D. W., & Pruesse, M. (1972). The semantic meaning of pornographic stimuli for college males. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 4, 204–209. doi:10.1037/h0082304
  • Weaver, J. B. (1994). Pornography and sexual callousness: The perceptual and behavioral consequences of exposure to pornography. In D. Zillmann & J. Bryant (Eds.), Media, children, and the family: Social scientific, psychodynamic, and clinical perspectives (pp. 215–228). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
  • Weber, M., Quiring, O., & Daschmann, G. (2012). Peers, parents and pornography: Exploring adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit material and its developmental correlates. Sexuality and Culture, 16, 408–427. doi:10.1007/s12119-012-9132-7
  • Wenzlaff, F., Briken, P., & Dekker, A. (2016). Video-based eye tracking in sex research: A systematic literature review. Journal of Sex Research, 53, 1008–1019. doi:10.1080/00224499.2015.1107524
  • Wetterneck, C. T., Burgess, A. J., Short, M. B., Smith, A. H., & Cervantes, M. E. (2012). The role of sexual compulsivity, impulsivity, and experiential avoidance in internet pornography use. The Psychological Record, 62, 3–18.
  • Willoughby, B. J., & Busby, D. M. (2016). In the eye of the beholder : Exploring variations in the perceptions of pornography. Journal of Sex Research, 53, 678–688. doi:10.1080/00224499.2015.1013601
  • Willoughby, B. J., Carroll, J. S., Nelson, L. J., & Padilla-Walker, L. M. (2014). Associations between relational sexual behaviour, pornography use, and pornography acceptance among US college students. Culture, Health and Sexuality, 16, 1052–1069. doi:10.1080/13691058.2014.927075
  • Winick, C. (1985). A content analysis of sexually explicit magazines sold in an adult bookstore. Journal of Sex Research, 21, 206–210. doi:10.1080/00224498509551259
  • Wolak, J., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). Unwanted and wanted exposure to online pornography in a national sample of youth Internet users. Pediatrics, 119, 247–257. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1891
  • Woods, B. D. (2011). What’s still wrong with psychology, anyway? Twenty slow years, three old issues, and one new methodology for improving psychological research. University of Canterbury. Retrieved from http://www.ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/5208
  • Wright, P. J. (2013). U.S. males and pornography, 1973–2010: Consumption, predictors, correlates. Journal of Sex Research, 50, 60–71. doi:10.1080/00224499.2011.628132
  • Wright, P. J., Bae, S., & Funk, M. (2013). United States women and pornography through four decades: Exposure, attitudes, behaviors, individual differences. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42, 1131–1144. doi:10.1007/s10508-013-0116-y
  • Wright, P. J., & Tokunaga, R. S. (2016). Men’s objectifying media consumption, objectification of women, and attitudes supportive of violence against women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45, 955–964. doi:10.1007/s10508-015-0644-8
  • Wright, P. J., Tokunaga, R. S., & Bae, S. (2014). More than a dalliance? Pornography consumption and extramarital sex attitudes among married U.S. adults. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3, 97–109. doi:10.1037/ppm0000024
  • Wright, P. J., Tokunaga, R. S., & Kraus, A. (2016). A meta-analysis of pornography consumption and actual acts of sexual aggression in general population studies. Journal of Communication, 66, 183–205. doi:10.1111/jcom.12201
  • Wryobeck, J. M., & Wiederman, M. W. (1999). Sexual narcissism: Measurement and correlates among college men. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 25, 321–330. doi:10.1080/00926239908404009
  • Wurtele, S. K., Simons, D. A., & Moreno, T. (2014). Sexual interest in children among an online sample of men and women: Prevalence and correlates. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 26, 546–568. doi:10.1177/1079063213503688
  • Yang, N., & Linz, D. (1990). Movie ratings and the content of adult videos: The sex-violence ratio. Journal of Communication, 40, 28–42. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1990.tb02260.x
  • Ybarra, M. L., Mitchell, K. J., Hamburger, M., Diener-West, M., & Leaf, P. J. (2011). X-rated material and perpetration of sexually aggressive behavior among children and adolescents: Is there a link? Aggressive Behavior, 37, 1–18. doi:10.1002/ab.20367
  • Ybarra, M. L., & Thompson, R. E. (2018). Predicting the emergence of sexual violence in adolescence. Prevention Science, 19, 403–415. doi:10.1007/s11121-017-0810-4
  • Zillmann, D. (1983). Transfer of excitation in emotional behavior. In J. T. Cacioppo & R. E. Petty (Eds.), Social psychophysiology: A sourcebook (pp. 215–240). New York: Guilford Press.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.