Too Common to Count? “Mild” Sexual Assault and Aggression among U.S. College Women

References

• Abbey, A. (2016). Moving beyond simple answers to complex questions: How does context affect alcohol’s role in sexual assault perpetration? A commentary on Testa and Cleveland (2017). Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 78(1), 14–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2011.00296.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali, R. (2011, April 4). Dear colleague letter. U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/dear_colleague_sexual_violence.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Armstrong, E. A., Hamilton, L., & Sweeney, B. (2006). Sexual assault on campus: A multilevel, integrative approach to party rape. Social Problems, 53(4), 483–499. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2006.53.4.483
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banyard, V. L., Plante, E. G., Cohn, E. S., Moorhead, C., Ward, S., & Walsh, W. (2005). Revisiting unwanted sexual experiences on campus: A 12-year follow-up. Violence Against Women, 11(4), 426–446. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801204274388
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bay-Cheng, L. Y., & Bruns, A. E. (2016). Yes, but: Young women’s views of unwanted sex at the intersection of gender and class. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(4), 504–517. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316653902
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bay-Cheng, L. Y., & Eliseo-Arras, R. K. (2008). The making of unwanted sex: Gendered and neoliberal norms in college women’s unwanted sexual experiences. Journal of Sex Research, 45(4), 386–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490802398381
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker, S., & Tinkler, J. (2015). “Me getting plastered and her provoking my eyes”: Young people’s attribution of blame for sexual aggression in public drinking spaces. Feminist Criminology, 10(3), 235–258. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085114541142
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bersamin, M. M., Paschall, M. J., Saltz, R. F., & Zamboanga, B. L. (2012). Young adults and casual sex: The relevance of college drinking settings. Journal of Sex Research, 49(2–3), 274–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2010.548012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2014). Special report: Rape and sexual assault victimization among college-age females, 1995-2013 (NCJ 248471). U.S. Department of Justice. http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/rsavcaf9513.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Canan, S. N., Jozkowski, K. N., Wiersma-Mosley, J., Blunt-Vinti, H., & Bradley, M. (2020). Validation of the Sexual Experiences Survey-Short Form Revised using lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual women’s narratives of sexual violence. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(3), 1067–1083. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01543-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cantor, D., Fisher, B., Chibnall, S., Townsend, R., Lee, H., Bruce, C., & Thomas, G. (2015). Report on the AAU campus climate survey on sexual assault and sexual misconduct. Association of American Universities. https://www.aau.edu/sites/default/files/%40%20Files/Climate%20Survey/AAU_Campus_Climate_Survey_12_14_15.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Cook, S. L., Swartout, K. M., Goodnight, B. L., Hipp, T. N., & Bellis, A. L. (2015). Impact of violence research on participants over time: Helpful, harmful, or neither? Psychology of Violence, 5(3), 314. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038442
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, K. C., Danube, C. L., Stappenbeck, C. A., Norris, J., & George, W. H. (2015). Background predictors and event-specific characteristics of sexual aggression incidents: The roles of alcohol and other factors. Violence Against Women, 21(8), 997–1017. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215589379
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deitz, M. F., Williams, S. L., Rife, S. C., & Cantrell, P. (2015). Examining cultural, social, and self-related aspects of stigma in relation to sexual assault and trauma symptoms. Violence Against Women, 21(5), 598–615. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215573330
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards, K. M., Kearns, M. C., Calhoun, K. S., & Gidycz, C. A. (2009). College women’s reactions to sexual assault research participation: Is it distressing? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33(2), 225–234. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01492.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fedina, L., Holmes, J. L., & Backes, B. L. (2018). Campus sexual assault: A systematic review of prevalence research from 2000 to 2015. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 19(1), 76–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016631129
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiebert, M. S., & Osburn, K. (2001). Effect of gender and ethnicity on self reports of mild, moderate and severe sexual coercion. Sexuality & Culture, 5(2), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-001-1015-2
   Google Scholar
• Fitzgerald, L. F., Gelfand, M. J., & Drasgow, F. (1995). Measuring sexual harassment: Theoretical and psychometric advances. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17(4), 425–445. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1704_2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzgerald, L. F., Magley, V. J., Drasgow, F., & Waldo, C. R. (1999). Measuring sexual harassment in the military: The Sexual Experiences Questionnaire (SEQ—DoD). Military Psychology, 11(3), 243–263. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327876mp1103_3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forbes, G. B., & Adams-Curtis, L. E. (2001). Experiences of sexual coercion in college males and females: Role of family conflict, sexist attitudes, acceptance of rape myths, self-esteem, and the Big-Five personality factors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16(9), 865–889. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626001016009002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford, J., & Soto-Marquez, J. G. (2016). Sexual assault victimization among straight, gay/lesbian, and bisexual college students. Violence and Gender, 3(2), 107–115. https://doi.org/10.1089/vio.2015.0030
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gavey, N. (2005). Just sex? The cultural scaffolding of rape. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Graham, K., Bernards, S., Abbey, A., Dumas, T., & Wells, S. (2014). Young women’s risk of sexual aggression in bars: The roles of intoxication and peer social status. Drug and Alcohol Review, 33(4), 393–400. https://doi.org/10.1111/dar.12153
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, K., Bernards, S., Osgood, D. W., Abbey, A., Parks, M., Flynn, A., Dumas, T., & Wells, S. (2014). “Blurred lines?” Sexual aggression and barroom culture. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 38(5), 1416–1424. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.12356
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, K., Wells, S., Bernards, S., & Dennison, S. (2010). “Yes I do, but not with you”: Qualitative analyses of sexual/romantic overture-related aggression in bars and clubs. Contemporary Drug Problems, 37(2), 197–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/009145091003700203
   Google Scholar
• Gutzmer, K., Ludwig-Barron, N. T., Wyatt, G. E., Hamilton, A. B., & Stockman, J. K. (2016). “Come on baby. You know I love you”: African American women’s experiences of communication with male partners and disclosure in the context of unwanted sex. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45(4), 807–819. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0688-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hines, D. A., & Douglas, E. M. (2016). Sexual aggression experiences among male victims of physical partner violence: Prevalence, severity, and health correlates for male victims and their children. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45(5), 1133–1151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0393-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277–1288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hust, S. J. T., & Rodgers, K. B. (2018). Scripting adolescent romance: Adolescents talk about romantic relationships and media’s sexual scripts. Peter Lang. https://doi.org/10.3726/b13316
   Google Scholar
• Jeffrey, N. K., & Barata, P. C. (2016). “He didn’t necessarily force himself upon me, but … ” Women’s lived experiences of sexual coercion in intimate relationships with men. Violence Against Women, 23(8), 911–933.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jozkowski, K. N., Manning, J., & Hunt, M. (2018). Sexual consent in and out of the bedroom: Disjunctive views of heterosexual college students. Women’s Studies in Communication, 41(2), 117–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/07491409.2018.1470121
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jozkowski, K. N., & Wiersma-Mosley, J. D. (2017). The Greek system: How gender inequality and class privilege perpetuate rape culture. Family Relations, 66(1), 89–103. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12229
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kavanaugh, P. R. (2013). The continuum of sexual violence: Women’s accounts of victimization in urban nightlife. Feminist Criminology, 8(1), 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085112442979
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, L. (1987). The continuum of sexual violence. In J. Hanmer & M. Maynard (Eds.), Women, violence and social control (pp. 46–60). Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Kelly, L. (1988). Surviving sexual violence. Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kelly, L. (2011). Standing the test of time? Reflections on the concept of the continuum of violence. In J. M. Brown & S. L. Walklate (Eds.), Handbook on sexual violence (pp. xvii–xxvi). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Koss, M. P., Abbey, A., Campbell, R., Cook, S., Norris, J., Testa, C., Ullman, S., West, C., & White, J. (2007). Revising the SES: A collaborative process to improve assessment of sexual aggression and victimization. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(4), 357–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00385.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koss, M. P., & Gidycz, C. A. (1985). Sexual Experiences Survey: Reliability and validity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53(3), 422–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.53.3.422
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koss, M. P., & Oros, C. J. (1982). Sexual Experiences Survey: A research instrument investigating sexual aggression and victimization. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50(3), 455–457. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.50.3.455
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C., Berzofsky, M., Shook-Sa, B., Peterson, K., Planty, M., Langton, L., & Stroop, J. (2016). Campus Climate Survey Validation Study: Final technical report. Bureau of Justice Statistics. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/ccsvsftr.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C. H., & Barrick, K. (2011). The Historically Black College and University Campus Sexual Assault (HBCU-CSA) Study (NCJ Doc. No. 233614). National Institute of Justice. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/233614.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Large State University in the Midwest. (2015). Large State University in the Midwest policy on sexual misconduct by students. Retrieved from the Large State University in the Midwest Office of Institutional Equity on February 27, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Lipsky, S., Cristofalo, M., Reed, S., Caetano, R., & Roy-Byrne, P. (2012). Racial and ethnic disparities in police-reported intimate partner violence perpetration: A mixed methods approach. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(11), 2144–2162. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260511432152
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livingston, J. A., Buddie, A. M., Testa, M., & VanZile-Tamsen, C. (2004). The role of sexual precedence in verbal sexual coercion. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28(4), 287–297. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00146.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malamuth, N. M., & Hald, G. M. (2016). The confluence mediational model of sexual aggression. In A. R. Beech & T. Ward (Eds.), The Wiley handbook on the theories, assessment and treatment of sexual offending (Vol. 1, pp. 53–71). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Editor-in-chief: D. P. Boer.
   Google Scholar
• Marzell, M., Bavarian, N., Paschall, M. J., Mair, C., & Saltz, R. F. (2015). Party characteristics, drinking settings, and college students’ risk of intoxication: A multi-campus study. Journal of Primary Prevention, 36(4), 247–248. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-015-0393-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClelland, S. I., & Fine, M. (2008). Writing on cellophane: Studying teen women’s sexual desires; Inventing methodological release points. In K. Gallagher (Ed.), The methodological dilemma: Creative, critical and collaborative approaches to qualitative research (pp. 232–260). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• McClelland, S. I. (2010). Intimate justice: A critical analysis of sexual satisfaction. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(9), 663–680. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00293.x
   Google Scholar
• McClelland, S. I. (2014). Intimate justice. In T. Teo (Ed.), Encyclopedia of critical psychology (pp. 1010–1013). Springer Reference. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7
   Google Scholar
• McClelland, S. I., Rubin, J. D., & Bauermeister, J. A. (2016). Adapting to injustice: Young bisexual women’s interpretations of microaggressions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(4), 532–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316664514
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muehlenhard, C. L., Humphreys, T. P., Jozkowski, K. N., & Peterson, Z. D. (2016). The complexities of sexual consent among college students: A conceptual and empirical review. Journal of Sex Research, 53(4–5), 457–487. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1146651
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muehlenhard, C. L., Peterson, Z. D., Humphreys, T. P., & Jozkowski, K. N. (2017). Evaluating the one-in-five statistic: Women’s risk of sexual assault while in college. Journal of Sex Research, 54(4–5), 549–576. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1295014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadal, K. L. (2018). Concise guides on trauma care series. Microaggressions and traumatic stress: Theory, research, and clinical treatment. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000073-000
   Google Scholar
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2018). Sexual harassment of women: Climate, culture, and consequences in academic sciences, engineering, and medicine. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/24994
   Google Scholar
• Parks, K. A., & Miller, B. A. (1997). Bar victimization of women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(4), 509–525. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00128.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pino, N. W., & Johnson-Johns, A. M. (2009). College women and the occurrence of unwanted sexual advances in public drinking settings. The Social Science Journal, 46(2), 252–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2009.04.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ronen, S. (2010). Grinding on the dance floor: Gendered scripts and sexualized dancing at college parties. Gender & Society, 24(3), 355–377. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243210369894
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabina, C., & Ho, L. Y. (2014). Campus and college victim responses to sexual assault and dating violence: Disclosure, service utilization, and service provision. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15(3), 201–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014521322
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sesko, A. K., & Biernat, M. (2010). Prototypes of race and gender: The invisibility of Black women. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(2), 356–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.10.016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siddique, N. J. A. (2013). Sexual victimization of women and girls in the U.S.: An analysis of risk and trends [Doctoral dissertation, City University of New York]. ProQuest (UMI number 3561637).
   Google Scholar
• Smith, L. A., Kolokotroni, K. Z., & Turner-Moore, T. (2020). Making and communicating decisions about sexual consent during drug-involved sex: A thematic synthesis. Journal of Sex Research, 1–19. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1706072
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steel, J. L., & Herlitz, C. A. (2005). The association between childhood and adolescent sexual abuse and proxies for sexual risk behavior: A random sample of the general population of Sweden. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29(10), 1141–1153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.10.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terry, G., Hayfield, N., Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2017). Thematic analysis. In C. Willig & W. Stainton-Rogers (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research in psychology (pp. 17–37). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Testa, M., Brown, W. C., & Wang, W. (2019). Do men use more sexually aggressive tactics when intoxicated? A within person examination of naturally occurring episodes of sex. Psychology of Violence, 9(5), 546–554. https://doi.org/10.1037/t00970-000
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Testa, M., VanZile-Tamsen, C., Livingson, J. A., & Buddie, A. M. (2006). The role of women’s alcohol consumption in managing sexual intimacy and sexual safety motives. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 67(5), 665–674. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.2006.67.665
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thoresen, S., & Øverlien, C. (2009). Trauma victim: Yes or no?: Why it may be difficult to answer questions regarding violence, sexual abuse, and other traumatic events. Violence Against Women, 15(6), 699–719. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801209332182
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tinkler, J. E., Becker, S., & Clayton, K. A. (2018). “Kind of natural, kind of wrong”: Young people’s beliefs about the morality, legality, and normalcy of sexual aggression in public drinking settings. Law & Social Inquiry, 43(1), 28–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/lsi.12235
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2013, Pub. L. No. 113-4, 127 Stat 54. (2013). https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-113s47enr/pdf/BILLS-113s47enr.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Waldner-Haugrud, L. K., & Magruder, B. (1995). Male and female sexual victimization in dating relationships: Gender differences in coercion techniques and outcomes. Violence and Victims, 10(3), 203–215. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.10.3.203
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Watkins, D. C. (2017). Rapid and rigorous qualitative data analysis: The “RADaR” technique for applied research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1), 6093–6115. https://doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/52/20/002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei, J., Barnett, N. P., & Clark, M. (2010). Attendance at alcohol-free and alcohol-service parties and alcohol consumption among college students. Addictive Behaviors, 35(6), 572–579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.01.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault. (2014). Not alone: The first report of the White House task force to protect students from sexual assault. Department of Justice. https://www.justice.gov/archives/ovw/page/file/905942/download
   Google Scholar
• Wiersma-Mosley, J. D., Jozkowski, K. N., & Martinez, T. (2017). An empirical investigation of campus demographics and reported rapes. Journal of American College Health, 65(7), 482–491. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2017.1343829
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeater, E., Miller, G., Rinehart, J., & Nason, E. (2012). Trauma and sex surveys meet minimal risk standards: Implications for institutional review boards. Psychological Science, 23(7), 780–787. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611435131
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar