603
Views
2
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

From Fantasy to Reality: Self-Reported Aggression-Related Sexual Fantasies Predict Sexually Sadistic Behavior beyond Indirect and Direct Measures of Sexual Preference

ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon

References

  • Abbey, A., Jacques-Tiura, A. J., & Lebreton, J. M. (2011). Risk factors for sexual aggression in young men: An expansion of the confluence model. Aggressive Behavior, 37(5), 450–464. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20399
  • Abbey, A., & McAuslan, P. (2004). A longitudinal examination of male college students‘ perpetration of sexual assault. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(5), 747–756. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.72.5.747
  • Abrams, D., Viki, G. T., Masser, B., & Bohner, G. (2003). Perceptions of stranger and acquaintance rape: The role of benevolent and hostile sexism in victim blame and rape proclivity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(1), 111–125. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.111
  • Allen, A., Katsikitis, M., Millear, P., & McKillop, N. (2020). Psychological interventions for sexual fantasies and implications for sexual violence: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 55(November-December 2020), 101465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2020.101465
  • Arndt, W. B., Foehl, J. C., & Good, F. E. (1985). Specific sexual fantasy themes: A multidimensional study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(2), 472–480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.2.472
  • Banse, R., Schmidt, A. F., & Clarbour, J. (2010). Indirect measures of sexual interest in child sex offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(3), 319–335. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809357598
  • Bartels, R. M., & Gannon, T. A. (2009). Rape supportive cognition, sexual fantasies and implicit offence-scripts : A comparison between high and low rape prone men. Sexual Abuse in Australia and New Zealand, 2(1), 14–20.
  • Bartels, R. M., Gray, N. S., & Snowden, R. J. (2016). Indirect measures of deviant sexual interest. In D. P. Boer (Ed.), The Wiley handbook on the theories, assessment and treatment of sexual offending (Vol. 2, pp. 965–993). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118574003.wattso044
  • Bartels, R. M., Harkins, L., & Beech, A. R. (2020). The influence of fantasy proneness, dissociation, and vividness of mental imagery on male’s aggressive sexual fantasies. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(3–4), 964–987. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517691523
  • Bartels, R. M., & Harper, C. A. (2018). An exploration of the factor structure of Gray et al.’s Sexual Fantasy Questionnaire. Preprint. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/wxj54
  • Bártová, K., Androvičová, R., Krejčová, L., Weiss, P., & Klapilová, K. (2021). The prevalence of paraphilic interests in the Czech population: Preference, arousal, the use of pornography, fantasy, and behavior. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(1), 86–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1707468
  • Basile, K., Smith, S., Breiding, M., Black, M., & Mahendra, R. (2014). Sexual violence surveillance: Uniform definitions and recommended data elements, Version 2.0. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/sv_surveillance_definitionsl-2009-a.pdf
  • Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01
  • Baur, E., Forsman, M., Santtila, P., Johansson, A., Sandnabba, K., & Långström, N. (2016). Paraphilic sexual interests and sexually coercive behavior: A population-based twin study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45(5), 1163–1172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0674-2
  • Begany, J. J., & Milburn, M. A. (2002). Psychological predictors of sexual harassment: Authoritarianism, hostile sexism, and rape myths. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 3(2), 119–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.3.2.119
  • Bivona, J., & Critelli, J. (2009). The nature of women’s rape fantasies: An analysis of prevalence, frequency, and contents. Journal of Sex Research, 46(1), 33–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490802624406
  • Bondü, R., & Birke, J. B. (2020). Links between aggressive sexual fantasies and presumably non-consensual aggressive sexual behavior when controlling for BDSM identity. International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 14(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.4119/ijcv-3777
  • Bondü, R., & Birke, J. B. (2021). Aggression-related sexual fantasies: Prevalence rates, sex differences, and links with personality, attitudes, and behavior. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 18(8), 1383–1397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2021.06.006
  • Bouffard, J. A., Bouffard, L. A., & Miller, H. A. (2016). Examining the correlates of women’s use of sexual coercion. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(13), 2360–2382. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515575609
  • Briken, P., Von Franqué, F., & Berner, W. (2013). Paraphilie und hypersexuelle Störungen [Paraphilia and hypersexual disorder. In P. Briken & M. Berner (Eds.), Praxisbuch Sexuelle Störungen [Practice book sexual disorders] (pp. 239–249). Georg Thieme Verlag.
  • Brown, A., Barker, E. D., & Rahman, Q. (2020). A systematic scoping review of the prevalence, etiological, psychological, and interpersonal factors associated with BDSM. The Journal of Sex Research, 57(6), 781–811. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1665619
  • Carabellese, F., Maniglio, R., Greco, O., & Catanesi, R. (2011). The role of fantasy in a serial sexual offender: A brief review of the literature and a case report. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 56(1), 256–260. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2010.01536.x
  • Cava, M.-J., Martínez-Ferrer, B., Buelga, S., & Carrascosa, L. (2020). Sexist attitudes, romantic myths, and offline dating violence as predictors of cyber dating violence perpetration in adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 111(October 2020), 106449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106449
  • Daleiden, E. L., Kaufman, K. L., Hilliker, D. R., & O’Neil, J. N. (1998). The sexual histories and fantasies of youthful males: A comparison of sexual offending, nonsexual offending, and nonoffending Groups. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 10(3), 195–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/107906329801000304
  • Dean, K. E., & Malamuth, N. M. (1997). Characteristics of men who aggress sexually and of men who imagine aggressing: Risk and moderating variables. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(2), 449–455. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.449
  • Deegener, G. (1996). Multiphasic Sex Inventory (MSI). Fragebogen zur Erfassung psychosexueller Merkmale bei Sexualstraftätern, Handbuch [Questionnaire for recording psychosexual characteristics in sex offenders, manual]. Hogrefe.
  • Devries, K. M., Child, J. C., Bacchus, L. J., Mak, J., Falder, G., Graham, K., Watts, C., & Heise, L. (2014). Intimate partner violence victimization and alcohol consumption in women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Addiction, 109(3), 379–391. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12393
  • Dunkley, C. R., & Brotto, L. A. (2020). The role of consent in the context of BDSM. Sexual Abuse, 32(6), 657–678. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063219842847
  • Dyer, T. J., & Olver, M. E. (2016). Self-reported psychopathy and its association with deviant sexual fantasy and sexual compulsivity in a nonclinical sample. Sexual Offender Treatment, 11(2), 1–18. http://www.sexual-offender-treatment.org/154.html
  • Eckes, T., & Six-Materna, I. (1999). Hostilität und Benevolenz: Eine Skala zur Erfassung des ambivalenten Sexismus [Hostility and benevolence: A scale measuring ambivalent sexism]. Zeitschrift Für Sozialpsychologie, 30(4), 211–228. https://doi.org/10.1024//0044-3514.30.4.211
  • Eid, M., Gollwitzer, M., & Schmitt, M. (2017). Statistik und Forschungsmethoden [Statistics and research methods] (5th ed.). Beltz.
  • Forbes, G. B., Adams-Curtis, L. E., & White, K. B. (2004). First- and second-generation measures of sexism, rape myths and related beliefs, and hostility toward women. Violence Against Women, 10(3), 236–261. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801203256002
  • Forbes, G. B., & Adams-Curtis, L. E. (2001). Experiences with sexual coercion in college males and females. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16(9), 865–889. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626001016009002
  • Gee, D., Ward, T., Belofastov, A., & Beech, A. (2006). The structural properties of sexual fantasies for sexual offenders: A preliminary model. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 12(3), 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552600601009956
  • Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491
  • Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2011). Ambivalent sexism revisited. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(3), 530–535. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311414832
  • Greendlinger, V., & Byrne, D. (1987). Coercive sexual fantasies of college men as predictors of self-reported likelihood to rape and overt sexual aggression. Journal of Sex Research, 23(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224498709551337
  • Harris, G. T., Lalumière, M. L., Seto, M. C., Rice, M. E., & Chaplin, T. C. (2012). Explaining the erectile responses of rapists to rape stories: The contributions of sexual activity, non-consent, and violence with injury. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(1), 221–229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-9940-8
  • Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., Quinsey, V. L., & Chaplin, T. C. (1996). Viewing time as a measure of sexual interest among child molesters and normal heterosexual men. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34(4), 389–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(95)00070-4
  • Holvoet, L., Huys, W., Coppens, V., Seeuws, J., Goethals, K., & Morrens, M. (2017). Fifty shades of Belgian gray: The prevalence of BDSM-related fantasies and activities in the general population. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 14(9), 1152–1159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2017.07.003
  • Hsu, B., Kling, A., Kessler, C., Knapke, K., Diefenbach, P., & Elias, J. E. (1994). Gender differences in sexual fantasy and behavior in a college population: A ten-year replication. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 20(2), 103–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/00926239408403421
  • Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
  • IBM Corp. (2020). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows. 27.0.
  • Joinson, A. (1999). Social desirability, anonymity, and internet-based questionnaires. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments and Computers, 31(3), 433–438. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200723
  • Joyal, C. C., & Carpentier, J. (2017). The prevalence of paraphilic interests and behaviors in the general population: A provincial survey. The Journal of Sex Research, 54(2), 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1139034
  • Joyal, C. C., & Carpentier, J. (2021). Concordance and discordance between paraphilic interests and behaviors: A follow-up study. The Journal of Sex Research, 1–6. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2021.1986801
  • Joyal, C. C., Cossette, A., & Lapierre, V. (2015). What exactly is an unusual sexual fantasy? The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 12(2), 328–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsm.12734
  • Joyal, C. C. (2015). Defining “normophilic” and “paraphilic” sexual fantasies in a population-based sample: On the importance of considering subgroups. Sexual Medicine, 3(4), 321–330. https://doi.org/10.1002/sm2.96
  • Klump, M. C. (2006). Posttraumatic stress disorder and sexual assault in women. Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 21(2), 67–83. https://doi.org/10.1300/J035v21n02_07
  • Knight, R. A., & Sims-Knight, J. E. (2004). Testing an etiological model for male juvenile sexual offending against females. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 13(3–4), 33–55. https://doi.org/10.1300/J070v13n03_03
  • Knight, R. A., & Sims-Knight, J. E. (2006). The developmental antecedents of sexual coercion against women: Testing alternative hypotheses with structural equation modeling. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 989(1), 72–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07294.x
  • Krahé, B., & Berger, A. (2013). Men and women as perpetrators and victims of sexual aggression in heterosexual and same-sex encounters: A study of first-year college students in Germany. Aggressive Behavior, 39(5), 391–404. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21482
  • Krahé, B., Schuster, I., & Tomaszewska, P. (2021). Prevalence of sexual aggression victimization and perpetration in a German university student sample. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50(5), 2109–2121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-01963-4
  • Larue, D., Schmidt, A. F., Imhoff, R., Eggers, K., Schönbrodt, F. D., & Banse, R. (2014). Validation of direct and indirect measures of preference for sexualized violence. Psychological Assessment, 26(4), 1173–1183. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000016
  • Laws, D. R., & Marshall, W. L. (1990). A conditioning theory of the etiology and maintenance of deviant sexual preference and behavior. In W. L. Marshall, D. R. Laws, & H. E. Barbaree (Eds.), Handbook of Sexual Assault. Applied Clinical Psychology (pp. 209–229). Springer.
  • Leitenberg, H., & Henning, K. (1995). Sexual fantasy. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 469–496. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.469
  • Lisco, C. G., Parrott, D. J., & Tharp, A. T. (2012). The role of heavy episodic drinking and hostile sexism in men’s sexual aggression toward female intimate partners. Addictive Behaviors, 37(11), 1264–1270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.06.010
  • Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9(2), 151–173. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_1
  • MacCulloch, M. J., Snowden, P. R., Wood, P. J. W., & Mills, H. E. (1983). Sadistic fantasy, sadistic behaviour and offending. British Journal of Psychiatry, 143(1), 20–29. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.143.1.20
  • Malamuth, N. M. (2006). Criminal and noncriminal sexual aggressors. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 989(1), 33–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07292.x
  • Mann, R. E., Hanson, R. K., & Thornton, D. (2010). Assessing risk for sexual recidivism: Some proposals on the nature of psychologically meaningful risk factors. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 22(2), 191–217. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063210366039
  • Martin, S. M., Smith, F., & Quirk, S. W. (2016). Discriminating coercive from sadomasochistic sexuality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45(5), 1173–1183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0595-0
  • Matuschek, H., Kliegl, R., Vasishth, S., Baayen, H., & Bates, D. (2017). Balancing Type I error and power in linear mixed models. Journal of Memory and Language, 94(June), 305–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2017.01.001
  • McLaughlin, J., O’Carroll, R. E., & O’Connor, R. C. (2012). Intimate partner abuse and suicidality: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(8), 677–689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.08.002
  • Meuwissen, I., & Over, R. (1991). Multidimensionality of the content of female sexual fantasy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29(2), 179–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(91)90046-6
  • Murnen, S. K., Wright, C., & Kaluzny, G. (2002). If “boys will be boys,” then girls will be victims? A meta-analytic review of the research that relates masculine ideology to sexual aggression. Sex Roles, 46(11/12), 359–375. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020488928736
  • Muthen, L. K., & Muthen, B. O. (2017). Mplus User’s Guide (8th ed.). Muthén & Muthén.
  • Nichols, H. R., & Molinder, I. (1984). The Multiphasic Sex Inventory. A test to assess psychosexual characteristics of the sex offender. Nichols & Molinder Assessments.
  • Noorishad, P.-G., Levaque, E., Byers, E. S., & Shaughnessy, K. (2019). More than one flavour: University students’ specific sexual fantasies, interests, and experiences. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 28(2), 143–158. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.2019-0024
  • O’Donohue, W., Letoumeau, E. J., & Dowling, H. (1997). Development and preliminary validation of a paraphilic sexual fantasy questionnaire. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 9(3), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/107906329700900302
  • Parsons, S., Kruijt, A.-W., & Fox, E. (2019). Psychological science needs a standard practice of reporting the reliability of cognitive-behavioral measurements. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 2(4), 378–395. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245919879695
  • Person, E. S., Terestman, N., Myers, W. A., Goldberg, E. L., & Salvadori, C. (1989). Gender differences in sexual behaviors and fantasies in a college population. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 15(3), 187–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/00926238908403822
  • Pohl, A., Wolters, A., & Ponseti, J. (2016). Investigating the task dependency of viewing time effects. The Journal of Sex Research, 53(8), 1027–1035. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2015.1089429
  • Prentky, R. A., Burgess, A. W., Rokous, F., Lee, A., Hartman, C., Ressler, R., & Douglas, J. (1989). The presumptive role of fantasy in serial sexual homicide. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146(7), 887–891. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.146.7.887
  • R Development Core Team. (2019). R: A language and enviroment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
  • Revelle, W. (2019). psych: Procedures for psychological, psychometric, and personality research R package version 1.9.12. Northwestern University. https://cran.r-project.org/package=psych
  • Rossegger, A., Bartels, R. M., Endrass, J., Borchard, B., & Singh, J. P. (2021). High risk sexual fantasies and sexual offending: An overview of fundamentals and interventions. Sexual Offending: Theory, Research, and Prevention, 16. https://doi.org/10.5964/sotrap.5291
  • RStudio Team. (2020). RStudio: Integrated Development for R. RStudio, PBC.
  • Ryan, K. M. (2004). Further evidence for a cognitive component of rape. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 9(6), 579–604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2003.05.001
  • Schmidt, A. F., Babchishin, K. M., & Lehmann, R. J. B. (2017). A meta-analysis of viewing time measures of sexual interest in children. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(1), 287–300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0806-3
  • Schmidt, A. F., Banse, R., & Imhof, R. (2015). Indirect measures in forensic contexts. In T. M. Ortner & F. J. R. van de Vijer (Eds.), Behavior-based assessment in psychology: Going beyond self-report in the personality, affective, motivation, and social domains (pp. 173–194). Hogrefe.
  • Schmidt, A. F., & Banse, R. (2021). Using indirect measures of sexual Interest in forensic contexts-past, present, and future. In K. Uzieblo, W. J. Smid, and K. McCartan (Eds.), Sex offender assessment, treatment, and management: Emerging directions and debates (pp. 67–83). Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Schuster, I., & Krahé, B. (2019). Predictors of sexual aggression perpetration among male and female college students: Cross-cultural evidence from Chile and Turkey. Sexual Abuse, 31(3), 318–343. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063218793632
  • Seto, M. C., Curry, S., Dawson, S. J., Bradford, J. M. W., & Chivers, M. L. (2021). Concordance of paraphilic interests and behaviors. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(4), 424–437. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1830018
  • Seto, M. C., Lalumière, M. L., Harris, G. T., & Chivers, M. L. (2012). The sexual responses of sexual sadists. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121(3), 739–753. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028714
  • Seto, M. C. (2019). The motivation-facilitation model of sexual offending. Sexual Abuse, 31(1), 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063217720919
  • Shulman, J. L., & Home, S. G. (2006). Guilty or not? A path model of women’s sexual force fantasies. The Journal of Sex Research, 43(4), 368–377. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490609552336
  • Simula, B. L. (2019). Pleasure, power, and pain: A review of the literature on the experiences of BDSM participants. Sociology Compass, 13(3), e12668. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12668
  • Singmann, H., Bolker, B., Westfall, J., Aust, F., & Ben-Shachar, M. S. (2020). afex: Analysis of factorial experiments (0.28–0). https://cran.r-project.org/package=afex
  • Smid, W. J., & Wever, E. C. (2019). Mixed emotions: An incentive motivational model of sexual deviance. Sexual Abuse, 31(7), 731–764. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063218775972
  • Smith, D., & Over, R. (1991). Male sexual fantasy: Multidimensionality in content. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29(3), 267–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(91)90117-L
  • Thornton, D. (2010). Evidence regarding the need for a diagnostic category for a coercive paraphilia. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39(2), 411–418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-009-9583-6
  • Turner-Moore, T., & Waterman, M. (2017). Men presenting with sexual thoughts of children or coercion: Flights of fancy or plans for crime? The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 14(1), 113–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.11.003
  • Wilson, G. D., & Lang, R. J. (1981). Sex differences in sexual fantasy patterns. Personality and Individual Differences, 2(4), 343–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(81)90093-3
  • Wilson, G. D. (1997). Gender differences in sexual fantasy: An evolutionary analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 22(1), 27–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(96)00180-8
  • Wilson, G. D. (2010). Measurement of sex fantasy. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 25(1), 57–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681990903550134
  • Winter, B. (2019). Statistics for linguists: An introduction using R. In Statistics for Linguists: An Introduction Using R. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315165547
  • Woodworth, M., Freimuth, T., Hutton, E. L., Carpenter, T., Agar, A. D., & Logan, M. (2013). High-risk sexual offenders: An examination of sexual fantasy, sexual paraphilia, psychopathy, and offence characteristics. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 36(2), 144–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2013.01.007

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.