- This article is based on a chapter of my doctoral thesis entitled Gender and Christianity among Africans attached to Scottish mission stations in Xhosaland in the nineteenth century Cambridge 1998
- Williams , D . 1959 . The missionaries on the eastern frontier of the Cape Colony, 1799–1853 , University of the Witwatersrand . PhD thesis, and L de Kock, Civilising barbarians: missionary narrative and African textual response (Johannesburg, 1996). For other historiographic references see throughout
- Elbourne , E . 1992 . Early Khoisan uses of mission Christianity . Kronos: Journal of Cape History , 19
- See Hall M The changing past: farmers, kings and traders in southern Africa 200–1860 Cape Town 1987 for the prehistory of this area
- See Peires J The house of Phalo Johannesburg 1981 53 62 Also more generally Williams, ‘Missionaries on the eastern frontier; L Switzer, Power and resistance in an African Society: the Ciskei Xhosa and the Making of South Africa (Pietermaritzburg, 1993); J Lewis, ‘An economic history of the Ciskei’ (PhD thesis, University of Cape Town, 1985).
- For example Peires House of Phalo Williams, ‘Missionaries on the eastern frontier’; Switzer, Power and resistance; Lewis, ‘An economic history of the Ciskei’.
- ‘The pivot of Protestant missionary endeavour was the mission station.’ Langmore D The object lesson of a Christian, civilised home Family and gender in the Pacific: domestic contradictions and the colonial impact Jolly M Macintyre M Cambridge 1989 85 85 in
- For a discussion of the mission stations in the western Cape and their gendered arrangements see Scully P Liberating the family? Gender and British slave emancipation in the rural western Cape, South Africa, 1823–1853 Portsmouth, NH 1997
- Peires . House of Phalo 1 – 3 .
- In part this was also because of government instructions about obtaining information on the Xhosa Williams D Where races meet Johannesburg 1967 6 6 21, 24, 52 and throughout
- See Wilson M The Nguni people The Oxford history of South Africa Wilson M Thompson L Oxford 1969 I 116 130 in, and Lewis, ‘Ciskei’, chapter two, for a discussion of the dynamics of Xhosa society
- Wilson . The Nguni people 119 – 119 .
- Lewis . Ciskei 14 – 14 .
- Peires . House of Phalo chapter three (‘Chiefs and commoners’); W D Hammond-Tooke, ‘Kinship authority and political authority in pre-colonial South Africa’ in A Spiegel & P McAllister (eds), Tradition and transition in southern Africa: Festschrift for Philip and Iona Mayer (New Brunswick and London, 1991).
- See also Williams D Social and economic aspects of Christian mission stations in Caffraria 1816–1854, part 1 Historia 1985 30 35 35 Williams uses the same quotation as I do in his detailed description of what a mission station exactly entailed.
- Hamilton , A . “ Bond-slaves of Satan: aboriginal women and the missionary dilemma ” . In Family and gender in the Pacific 241 – 241 . in
- Thomson , William Ritchie . 1823 . Annual Report of the GMS 11 – 11 . Ms16579, Laing's Journal, 9 February 1832.
- January 1824 . Ms9037 January , 1
- February 1824 . Ms9037 February , 7
- 1826 . Annual Report 18 – 18 . Annual Report 1829, p 1.
- Editor Annual Report 1826 18 18
- October 1831 . “ Ms8182 ” . In John Ross to the Glasgow Corresponding Society for Prayer October , 6
- 1828 . Annual Report 12 – 12 . 15
- January 1833 . Ms9037 January , 3
- 1831 . “ Ms3126 ” . In John Ross to the Directors
- See John Ross Journal in Quarterly Paper 6 1830 for several instances of this.
- For example Ms9037 1827 August 15, 3 September 1829.
- Thomson , William Ritchie . 1827 . Quarterly Paper 6 – 6 .
- 1829 . Ms9037 October to December, Vusani is more commonly known as Ngubencuka
- Ross , John . 1830 . Quarterly Paper , 6 : 6 – 6 .
- Hammond-Tooke , WD . 1972 . The journal of William Shaw 74 – 75 . Cape Town
- Williams . Missionaries on the eastern frontier 70 – 70 . 84 and Peires, House of Phalo, p 76 (quoting).
- Switzer . Power and resistance 122 – 122 . and J Hodgson, ‘Ntsikana: history and symbol. Studies in a process of religious change among Xhosa-speaking people’ (PhD thesis, University of Cape Town, 1984), p 54 and Peires quoted in the same.
- Taylor , JV . 1958 . The growth of the church in Buganda: an attempt at understanding Westport examines the move to belief from a similar perspective, but Taylor seems to have been preeminent among mission historians of his time in not prioritising the work of the mission and the missionaries.
- Elbourne , Elizabeth . 1991 . “To colonize the mind”: evangelical missionaries in Britain and the eastern Cape, 1790–1837 Oxford DPhil thesis, and Paul Landau, The realm of the word: language, gender and Christianity in a southern African kingdom (New Haven, 1995).
- Also Peires House of Phalo Switzer, Power and resistance; D Gaitskell ‘Devout domesticity: a century of African women's Christianity in South Africa’ in C Walker (ed), Women and gender in southern Africa to 1945 (Cape Town, 1990), p 253. Many people quote Norman Etherington, Preachers, peasants and politics in southeast Africa, 1835–1880 (London, 1978) when discussing the origins of mission station inhabitants, but an examination of Etherington will show that he was a lot more circumspect than some other authors in his account of origins.
- Hodgson . Ntsikana 336 – 336 .
- January 1831 . Ms9037 January , 29
- January 1837 . Council for World Mission, School of Oriental and African Studies, London, CWM SA Incombing, Kayser to Ellis January , 31, Kayser to Ellis, 7 August 1838 (hereafter CWM).
- Hodgson . Ntsikana 212 – 212 .
- 1986 . Williams's article ‘Social and economic aspects of Christian missions in Caffraria 1816–1854, part 2’ . Historia , 31 : 25 – 57 . contains lists of the ethnic affiliation of station residents mentioned in mission records for this period.
- Peires . House of Phalo 19 – 19 . Williams, Where races meet, p 45.
- Hodgson . Ntsikana 336 – 336 .
- January 1840 . CWM, SA Incoming, Calderwood to Ellis January , 14
- Tisani , N . Gender relations in mission stations . Paper presented at the Missions and Christianity Conference . pp. 7 – 7 . University of the Western Cape .
- April 1832 . Ms9037 April , 5
- April 1843 . Ms9038 April , 5, June 1843.
- January . Ms3500 January , Stretch to Bennie, 18
- April 1843 . Ms9038 April , 5
- Compare for instance Ms3275, John Ross Journal, March 1853 with BPP Correspondence relative to Kafir tribes 1635 of 1852–3, Despatch no 51.
- Imperial Blue Books, British Parliamentary Papers, BPP Papers and correspondence relative to the Kafir tribes 232 – 237 . 424 of 1851 Amended Treaties
- See also Williams Where races meet 9 9
- Hodgson . Ntsikana 76 – 76 .
- April 1828 . Ms9037 April , 3, 3 December 1829; John Ross Journal, Quarterly Paper, 1830.
- Report of a Select Committee on the Kafir Tribes 64 – 64 . 635 of 1851
- September 1826 . Ms7713 September , John Ross to Mother, 28
- Etherington . Peasants, preachers and politics 94 – 94 .
- Hammond-Tooke , WD . 1962 . Bhaca society 72 – 72 . Cape Town
- In Natal only 3% of station residents were in this category Etherington Peasants, preachers and politics 94 94
- Fast , H . 1993 . “In one ear and out at the other”: the African response to the Wesleyan message in Xhosaland 1825–1835 . Journal of Religion in Africa , XXIII : 157 – 158 . J Hodgson, The God of the Xhosa (Cape Town, 1982), p 17; M Hunter, Reaction to conquest, 2nd ed (London, 1961), pp 272–319
- Peires . House of Phalo 38 – 41 .
- 1826 . Ms2367 Helen Ross letterbook
- September 1826 . Ms7713 September , John Ross to Mother, 28
- May 1829 . Ms9037 May , 20
- September 1829 . Ms9037 September , 3
- Warner's notes in Maclean's Compendium of Kafir law and custom Mount Coke 1858 85 85 Autumn Quarterly Intelligence 1839; Ms9038, 21 August 1839.
- December 1829 . Ms9037 December , 3
- Horton , R . 1971 . African conversion . Africa , 41 : 85 – 108 . Quoted in B Carmody, Conversion and Jesuit schooling in Zambia (Leiden, 1992), pp 56.
- Hodgson . Ntsikana xiv – xiv . Carmody, Conversion, p 56
- See Shaw R The invention of “African traditional religion” Religion 1990 20 344 344 for a discussion of the historiography of this phenomenon.
- Landau is not the only person to have done this; see also Shaw R The invention of “African traditional religion” Religion 1990 20 344 344
- Landau is not the only person to have done this; see also Shaw R The invention of “African traditional religion” Religion 1990 20 xix xix
- Spear , T . 1997 . Toward the history of African Christianity . Africans Meeting Missionaries Conference . May 2–3 1997 , Minneapolis. pp. 3 – 3 .
- Carmody . Jesuits xi – xi .
- Hodgson , J . The God of the Xhosa 5 – 5 . Also ‘Ntsikana’, 15. Though contact between the Xhosa and their Khoikhoi neighbours was frequently not amicable.
- Hodgson . Ntsikana 15 – 15 . 55
- Elbourne . Early Khoisan uses 3 – 3 .
- Elbourne . Early Khoisan uses 7 – 7 .
- Elbourne . Early Khoisan uses 10 – 10 .
- Elbourne . Early Khoisan uses 3 – 3 .
- Hodgson . Ntsikana 220 – 220 .
- Bokwe , JK . 1914 . Ntsikana: the story of an African convert Lovedale A Hastings, The church in Africa (Oxford, 1994), pp 200–221; J Peires, The dead will arise: Nonqgawuse and the Great Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement of 1856–7 (Johannesburg, 1989); J Hodgson, ‘Soga and Dukwana: the Christian struggle for liberation in mid 19th century South Africa’, Journal of Religion in Africa, XVI (1986), pp 187–190.
- October 1837 . Ms9038 October , 4
- Hodgson . Ntsikana 99 – 108 .
- Mayer , P . 1980 . “ The origin and decline of two rural resistance ideologies ” . In Black villagers in an industrial society 7 – 7 . Cape Town in his edited volume
- Hodgson . Ntsikana 147 – 147 .
- Hodgson . Ntsikana 509 – 511 .
- Hodgson . Ntsikana 55 – 55 .
- Hodgson . Ntsikana xviii – xviii .
- Hodgson . Nitsikana 147 – 147 . Also J Hodgson, ‘A battle for sacred power: Christian beginnings among the Xhosa’ in R Elphick & R Davenport (eds), Christianity in South Africa (Cape Town, 1997), p 71.
- November 1824 . Ms8093 November , John Ross to Mother, 2
- July 1856 . Ms2988 July , John Ross to Richard Ross, 23
- July 1856 . Ms7741 July , John Ross to Richard Ross, 23
- Williams . Missionaries on the eastern frontier 84 – 84 . Also Hodgson, ‘Ntsikana’
- According to Laing, Bennie and Ross only began preaching in Xhosa in the early 1830s Ms16579 1831 September Journal, 3
- Sanneh , L . 1989 . Translating the message , New York : Maryknoll .
- Ross , John . 1827 . Quarterly Paper 7 – 7 .
- Hammond-Tooke . William Shaw 146 – 146 .
- cf Ms9037 1833 July 4
- See also Fast In one ear 167 167
- Fast . In one ear 147 – 174 . Also Shaw in Hammond-Tooke, William Shaw, throughout.
- Hastings A Were women a special case? Women and mission: past and present et al. Providence and Oxford 1993 in, P Mayer, ‘Two rural resistance ideologies’ in Mayer (ed), Black villagers, p 34; Landau, The realm of the word, chapter three.
- For instance in Peires The dead will arise 171 174 where Peires only considers the fact that women constituted the greater support for the Cattle-Killing Movement on four pages
- Laing , James . October 1858 . Home and foreign October , 59 – 59 .
- Hodgson . Ntsikana 82 – 82 .
- Hodgson . Ntsikana 221 – 221 .
- Ms9037-40
- Hastings . Were women a special case 111 – 111 .
- Landau . The realm of the word
- Gaitskell , D . The Bantu people are very emotional quoted in G Cuthbertson, ‘Between God and patriarchy: interpreting African women's responses to mission Christianity in recent South African historiography and biography’, Africans Meeting Missionaries Conference Minnesota, 2–3 May 1997, p 10.
- Gaitskell , D . 1982 . “ Wailing for purity: prayer unions, African mothers and adolescent daughters 1912–1940 ” . In Industrialization and social change in South Africa Edited by: Marks , S and Rathbone , R . London in
- For example Ms16579, Laing's Journal 1831 November 30
- Hodgson . Ntsikana 162 – 162 . 202
- November 1840 . Ms9038 November , 25, 1 January 1845.
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