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Original Articles

Black workers and labor unions in Birmingham, Alabama, 1897–1904Footnote

Pages 375-407 | Published online: 03 Jul 2008

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  • 1957 . Strange Career of Jim Crow 49 – 93 . New York
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  • Davis , Richard L. 1898 . UMW Journal , February 10 to Editor
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  • 1902 . Locomotive Firemen's Magazine , 33 ( 3 ) September : 428
  • 1899 . Labor Advocate , June 3, 17
  • 1901 . Birmingham News , April 6
  • 1899 . Jasper Mountain Eagle , May 19
  • 1902 . “Case No. 6: Giddens vs. Union No. 1 Alabama,” . In 37th Annual Report of President and Secretary of the Bricklayers and Masons’ International Union, 1902 173 – 180 . North Adams, Mass.
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  • 1899 . Birmingham Age‐Herald , April 1 (Hereafter Age‐Herald)
  • 1902 . Birmingham News , September 20
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  • Bond , Horace Mann . 1939 . Negro Education in Alabama: A Study in Cotton and Steel 168 – 170 . Washington
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  • 1903 . Birmingham [Negro] Free Speech , June 20
  • American Federation of Labor . 1898 . Report of Proceedings, Eighteenth Annual Convention, 1898 . : 89 – 90 . 93 – 100 . n.p.
  • Wolman , Leo . 1924 . The Growth of American Trade Unions, 1880–1923 33 New York
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  • Head , Holman . 1955 . “The Development of the Labor Movement in Alabama Prior to 1900” . University of Alabama . unpublished Master's Thesis
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  • 1878 . National Labor Tribune , January 4
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  • 1899 . Age‐Herald , May 14, 24
  • 1900 . Birmingham News , February 26
  • 1899 . Labor Advocate , August 5
  • 1902 . Iron Matters’ Journal , 38 ( 9 ) September : 603
  • 1901 . Labor Advocate , April 8
  • 1899 . Iron Molders’ Journal , 35 ( 1 ) November : 590 – 592 .
  • 1897 . Machinists’ Monthly Journal , IX ( 21 ) March : 61 – 63 .
  • 1898 . Railroad Trainmen's Journal , XV ( 11 ) November : 912 – 914 .
  • 1901 . Locomotive Firemen's Magazine , 31 ( 1 ) January : 112
  • 1903 . Blacksmith's Journal , IV ( 2 ) February : 11
  • 1903 . The Carpenter , 23 ( 1 ) January : 3 23
  • 1902 . Bricklayer and Mason , V ( l ) February : 8
  • 1902 . 37th Annual Report. . . Bricklayers and Masons’ International Union, 1902 152 – 153 . North Adams, Mass.
  • International Union of Hod Carriers and Building Laborers . 1907 . 5th Annual Convention, Proceedings, 1907 . 1907 , Norfolk, Virginia. pp. 41
  • 1905 . Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel and Tin Workers . Amalgamated Journal , May 11
  • 1895 . United Mine Workers’ Journal , February 7
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  • American Federation of Labor . 1897 . 17th Annual Convention, Proceedings, 1891 . 1897 , Nashville. pp. 36
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  • 1906 . Bricklayer and Mason , IX ( 1 ) February : 5
  • American Federation of Labor . 1900 . 20th Annual Convention, Proceedings, 1900 . 1900 , Louisville. pp. 12 – 13 .
  • 1899 . Railroad Trainmen's Journal , XVI ( 9 ) September : 880
  • 1903 . The Carpenter , 23 ( 4 ) April : 5
  • 1897 . Locomotive Firemen's Magazine , 22 ( 2 ) February : 125 – 126 .
  • 1900 . Railroad Trainmen's Journal , 17 ( 6 ) June : 499 – 510 .
  • 1908 . Iron Molders’ Journal , 44 ( 4 ) April : 287 – 288 . 577 – 578 .
  • 1901 . Locomotive Firemen's Magazine , 30 ( 3 ) March : 440 – 441 .
  • 1903 . The Carpenter , 23 ( 1 ) January : 3
  • 1898 . Labor Advocate , April 2
  • Ellison , John . 1900 . Bricklayer and Mason , III ( 3 ) June : 10 to Editor
  • Filburn , Pat . 1901 . Locomotive Firemen's Magazine , 31 ( 1 ) January : 112 to Editor
  • 1903 . Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators, and Paperhangers Journal , March
  • 1903 . The Carpenter , 23 ( 4 ) April : 7
  • Davis , Richard . 1898 . UMW Journal , January 6 to Editor
  • Westbrook , W. T. 1900 . Labor Advocate , June 30 to Editor
  • 1903 . Birmingham Free Speech , April 25
  • 1901 . Labor Advocate , April 13
  • Davis , Richard . 1898 . UMW Journal , January 6 to Editor
  • Tidwell , Peter . 1898 . Labor Advocate , March 5 to Editor
  • 1901 . Labor Advocate , April 20
  • 1900 . Birmingham News , December 8, 10, 13
  • 1903 . Labor Advocate , August 15, September 19, 26, October 3
  • 1903 . Age‐Herald , August 12
  • 1904 . Jasper Mountain Eagle , May 11
  • Redkey , Edwin S. 1969 . “Black Exodus: African Emigration Movements Among American Negroes, 1890–1910” . Yale University Press . forthcoming
  • Gutman . “The Negro and the United Mine Workers,” . 46 – 110 .
  • 1900 . Annual Report of State Board of Alabama Inspector of Mines, 1900 Montgomery
  • 1897 . Birmingham State‐Herald , January 26
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  • 1897 . Birmingham State‐Herald , April 13
  • 1901 . Labor Advocate , April 13
  • Alabama State Board of Convict Inspectors . 1900, 1902 . Biennial Report, 1900, 1902 Montgomery
  • Harrison , Shelby . 1912 . “A Cash Nexus for Crime,” in . Survey , XXVII 4 January 6 : 1541 – 1556 .
  • 1897 . Labor Advocate , July 31, October 2
  • 1898 . Labor Advocate , February 5, October 29
  • 1899 . Labor Advocate , April 1
  • 1907 . Labor Advocate , June 14
  • 1900 . Labor Advocate , June 27
  • 1898 . Labor Advocate , December 17
  • 1902 . Birmingham News , December 11
  • 1903 . News , December 15–20
  • 1898 . Labor Advocate , May 21
  • 1903 . Labor Advocate , June 18
  • 30 . Labor Advocate , June 23 : 1900
  • 25 . Birmingham News , June 22 : 1900
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  • 1911 . A White Friend of the Workingman,” . Birmingham Journal , June 22 to Editor
  • 1899 . American Federationist , VI ( 7 ) September : 171
  • 1904 . International Hod Carriers and Building Laborers’ Union of America . 2nd Annual Convention, Report of Proceedings . 1904 , Sayre, Penn.. pp. 33 1904
  • 1905 . Age‐Herald , December 27
  • 1903 . 83th Annual Report . . . of Bricklayers and Masons’ International Union, 1903 116 North Adams, Mass.
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  • 1903 . The Carpenter , 23 ( 1 ) January : 3
  • 1904 . Labor Advocate , May 21
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  • 1899 . Age‐Herald , May 15
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  • 12 . Labor Advocate , August 5 : 1899
  • 6 . the Birmingham News , January 5 : 1900
  • 1904 . Age‐Herald , May 7
  • 29 . Birmingham State‐Herald , March 28 : 1899
  • Bowron , James . “Autobiography,” . I 407 – 408 . 477
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  • 1900 . Bessemer Weekly , June 16–30
  • 1900 . Bessemer Workman , June 20
  • 1900 . Bessemer Herald‐Journal , September 18
  • 1900 . Birmingham News , June 15–20, 29, July 16, September 18
  • 1899 . Labor Advocate , February 4, May 27, June 24, July 1–28
  • 1899 . Alabama Miner (Jasper) , July 22
  • 1899 . Oakman News , July 21
  • 1899 . Bessemer Weekly , April 15, June 17
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  • 1900 . Birmingham News , January 19
  • Letterbooks , Gompers . 1903 . American Federationist , X ( 2, 3, 9 ) February, March, September : 106 185 953
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  • 1901 . Labor Advocate , March 3
  • 1904 . Labor Advocate , September 10
  • 1904 . Birmingham News , September 5
  • 8 . Age‐Herald , September 6 : 1903
  • 1900 . Labor Advocate , September 1
  • 1901 . Labor Advocate , April 27
  • 1901 . Birmingham News , April 18
  • 1900 . Labor Advocate , September 8
  • 1906 . Birmingham News , April 27
  • 1903 . Labor Advocate , May 9
  • 1900 . Bessemer Weekly , June 16, 23, 30
  • 1900 . Bessemer Herald‐Journal , September 18
  • 1899 . Bessemer Weekly , June 17
  • 1899 . Birmingham Arbitrator , August 2
  • 1899 . Labor Advocate , July 21
  • 1900 . Birmingham News , January 19
  • 1901 . Birmingham News , July 3
  • 1902 . Labor Advocate , April 26
  • Hackney , Francis Sheldon . 1966 . “From Populism to Progressivism in Alabama, 1890–1910” . 221 Yale University . Ph.D. dissertation
  • 9 . Labor Advocate , May 2 : 1903
  • 1900 . Birmingham News , August 13
  • 1905 . Labor Advocate , April 15
  • 1903 . Labor Advocate , April 25, May 2
  • 1904 . Labor Advocate , October 1
  • 1904 . Birmingham News , August 24
  • Immigrants in Industries: Bituminous Coal Mining , IV 142 – 161 . 197 – 198 . 215
  • Fuller , Justin . 1966 . “The History of the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company” . 278 University of North Carolina . Ph.D. dissertation
  • Woodward . Origins of the New South 363 – 364 .
  • Dillard , B. H. 1908 . Labor Advocate , September 4 to Editor
  • 1903 . Labor Advocate , July 4
  • 1904 . Labor Advocate , May 7
  • Westbrook , W. T. 1900 . Labor Advocate , June 30 to Editor
  • 1905 . Amalgamated Journal , May 11
  • Brody , David . 1960 . Steelworkers in America: The Non‐Union Era 120 – 146 . Cambridge, Mass.
  • The author is indebted to Yale University for a travel grant which made much of the research for this article possible. I am also grateful to C. Vann Woodward, Mark Leiserson, and Edwin Redkey for their critical reading of an earlier version.

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