- The argument and discussion which follows is treated in greater detail in my forthcoming work For Democracy, Workers, and God: Labor Song-Poems and Labor Protest, 1865 to 1895 Urbana 1991
- Reuber , Karl . “ Strive for Better Life ” . In Hymns of Labor 7 – 8 . Pittsburgh in Karl Reuber n.d.
- On the term “working class culture” and the problems it engenders, see Bercuson David Through the Looking Glass of Culture: An Essay on the New Labor History Labour/Le Travail 1981 67 94 Spring Bryan Palmer, “Classifying Culture,” Ibid., Autumn-Spring 1981–82, 153–183, and Ian McKay, “Historians, Anthropology, and the Concept of Culture,” Ibid., Autumn-Spring 1981–1982, 185–242.
- For examples of scholarship on labor song and lore, see Denisoff R. Serge Great Day Coming: Folk Music And The American Left Urbana 1971 and Sing a Song Of Social Significance (Bowling Green, 1972); Philip Foner, American Labor Songs Of The Nineteenth Century (Urbana, 1975), Edith Fowke and Joe Glazer, Songs of Work And Freedom (Chicago, 1960); Archie Green, Only a Miner (Urbana, 1972); John Greenway, American Folksongs Of Protest (New York, 1953); and George Korson, Coal Dust On The Fiddle (Philadelphia, 1943), Minstrels Of The Mine Patch (Philadelphia, 1938), and Songs And Ballads of the Anthracite Miner (New York, 1926).
- Levine , Lawrence . 1977 . Black Culture, Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought From Slavery To Freedom 445 – 445 . Oxford
- See Gutman Herbert Protestantism and the American Labor Movement Work, Culture and Society In Industrializing America New York 1977 79 117 in his Eric Hobsbawm, “Methodism and the Threat of Revolution in Britain,” in his Laboring Men (London, 1968), 23–33, and “Religion and the Rise of Socialism,” Marxist Perspectives, Spring 1978, 14–33; and E.P. Thompson, The Making of The English Working Class (New York, Vintage, 1977), particularly the chapter entitled “The Transforming Power of the Cross” (350–400).
- On irreligion and the labor movement, see Nelson Bruce C. Revivalism and Upheaval: Irreligion and Chicago's Working Class in 1886 Paper presented to the Chicago Labor History Group 1987 Dec.
- Standard works on churches, the clergy, social reform, and the labor question in the nineteenth century include Abell Aaron I. The Urban Impact On American Protestantism, 1865–1900 Cambridge 1943 Clifford Griffin, Their Brothers' Keepers: Moral Stewardship In The United States, 1800–1865 (New Brunswick, 1960); Nathan Huggins, Protestants Against Poverty: Boston Charities, 1870–1900 (Westport, CT, 1971); Henry May, Protestant Churches And Industrial America (New York, 1963); William McLoughlin, Jr., Modern Revivalism (New York; 1959); Carroll Smith Rosenberg, Religion And The Rise Of The American City: The New York City Mission Movement, 1812–1870 (Ithaca, 1971), and Timothy Smith, Revivalism and Social Reform In Mid-nineteenth Century America (New York, 1957). On Catholicism, see Aaron I. Abell, American Catholicism And Social Action: A Search For Social Justice, 1965–1950 (Garden City, NY, 1960); Robert D. Cross, The Emergence Of Liberal Catholicism In America (Cambridge, 1958); and Jay P. Dolan, Catholic Revivalism: The American Experience, 1830–1900 (Notre Dame, 1978).
- For an account of a particularly revealing incident involving anti-clericalism, see Rollison David Property, Ideology, and Popular Culture in a Gloucestershire Village, 1660–1740 Past And Present Nov. 1981 70 97
- Camack , William . 1894 . The Church and the Workingman . Journal of United Labor , May : 4 – 4 .
- See Anon. The Toilers and the Preachers Monthly Journal Of The International Association of Machinists Jan. 1892 24 24 2 Arthur Cheesewright, “An Epitaph: Henry Ward Beecher,” Labor Enquirer (Denver), April, 1887; Joseph Fairfield, “The Holy Will of God,” St. Louis Labor, Dec. 7, 1895; A. J. Jennings, “Mammon's Tools,” Labor Enquirer (Denver), Feb. 6, 1886; Shandy Maguire (Patrick Fennell), “Church Musings,” Locomotive Engineer's Monthly Journal, 17 (May 1883), 245, and “Patience,” Ibid., 20 (July 1886), 470; Old Quiz, “The Hireling Saint of Long Island,” Labor Standard (Fall River, MA), Aug. 11, 1877; E. H. Rogers, “The Death of Beecher,” Labor Leader, Mar. 19, 1887; Samuel Simon, “Salaries Unwarranted,” United Mine Workers Journal, 2 (Aug. 1892), 6; and John Thompson, “Cookgustyguss,” Labor Enquirer (Chicago), April 16, 1887.
- Digham , John . 1895 . Blessings in Disguise . Bakers' Journal , Sept. 15
- Lawrence , B.M. 1868 . What We Want—Part II . Workingman's Advocate , April 25
- Anon. Pharisees, Hypocrites Fincher's Trades Review April 1864 2 See also Anon., “Christmas,” Truth, Dec. 27, 1882; Francis D. Daly, “Labor,” Journal of United Labor 7 (Sept. 1886), 2174; Harry Flash, “The Gold Bugs,” Labor Leader, Jan. 3, 1891; Mary Baird French, “The Weary Way,” Coast Seamen's Journal, Sept. 7, 1892; N.H., “The Revolution is Coming,” Granite Cutters' Journal, 7 (Nov. 1883), 7; Mrs. Henry B. Jones, “The Monopolist's Dream,” Locomotive Fireman's Monthly Magazine, 9 (Sept. 1885), 546; George Kinghorn, “From Illinois,” Workingman's Advocate, Oct. 1, 1870; D.R. Lewis, “A Song,” National Labor Tribune, Aug. 27, 1892; Richard Lloyd, “Death and the Oppressor,” National Labor Tribune, Aug. 12, 1882; Dyer Lum, “Modern Herods,” Labor Leaf, Dec. 15, 1886; Frank Robinson, “The Megatherium and the Millionaire,” Journal Of United Labor, 4 (Sept. 1883), 553; G.M.S., “The Miser's Wish,” Locomotive Fireman's Monthly Magazine, 11 (June, 1887), 351; and Samuel Simon, “The True Man, the Selfish Man, the Hypocrite,” National Labor Tribune, Feb. 22, 1890.
- The anti-labor views of the clergy are amply discussed in the works on religion cited above. For additional information on the clergy-business relation in this period, see Cochran Thomas C. Railroad Leaders 1845–1890: The Business Mind In Action Cambridge 1953 210 210 Gutman, “Protestantism and the American Labor Movement,” 80–81; Norris Magnuson, Salvation In the Slums: Evangelical Social Work, 1865–1920 (Metuchen, NJ, 1977), 20–29; and McLoughlin, 217–281.
- Whitebeard . 1869 . Trade and Spade . Workingman's Advocate , April 3
- Whitebeard . 1870 . The Toiler's Lot . Workingman's Advocate , Feb. 5
- I.F. 1870 . The Brotherhood . Locomotive Engineer's Monthly Journal , 4 May : 217 – 217 . Mrs. Henry B. Jones, “A Dream,” Railroad Brakemen's Journal, 4 (Aug. 1887), 356–357, and “The Monopolist's Dream,” Locomotive Fireman's Monthly Magazine, 9 (Sept. 1885), 546; F. Livingston, “Dignity of Labor,” Journal Of United Labor, 1 (June 1880), 70; Richard Lloyd, “Death and the Christian,” National Labor Tribune, Sept. 9, 1882; Shandy Maguire (Patrick Fennell), “An Hour With a Spook,” in Shandy Maguire, Random Rhymes And Rhapsodies Of The Rail (Cleveland, 1907), 203–206; Michael McGovern, “When the Changing Whistle Blows,” National Labor Tribune, Sept. 9, 1882; Edward Noonan, “An Incident of the Coal Strike,” Workingman's Advocate, June 17, 1871. Letters-to-the-editor and articles that appeared in these publications expressed similar views. See, for example, the reprinted speech of National Labor Union President Richard Trevellick to striking coal miners, “Schuylkill, County,” Ibid., June 18, 1870.
- Joice , William H. 1873 . Labor Musings . Cooper's Journal , 4 April : 167 – 168 .
- G.M.S. 1887 . The Miser's Wish . Locomotive Fireman's Monthly Magazine , 11 June : 351 – 351 .
- The term “hymn-tune technique” is my own. For a general discussion of the relationship between religious music and protest music, see Denisoff R. Serge The Religious Roots of the American Song of Persuasion Western Folklore July 1970 29 175 184
- Tallmadge , James D. 1886 . “ Our Ship of State ” . In Labor Songs Dedicated To The Knights Of Labor , 28 – 28 . Chicago : J.D. Tallmadge . in James D. Tallmadge See also Anon., “Thirty Cents a Day,” Workingman's Advocate, Nov. 19, 1872, and Anon., “The Shout for Liberty,” Trades, Sept. 13, 1879. On the history of the tune “The Wearing of the Green,” see George Pullen Jackson, Another Sheaf Of White Spirituals (Gainesville, 1952), 75, 101.
- Dalbey , M.A. 1884 . Opening Ode . Journal Of United Labor , 1 Mar. : 102 – 102 .
- On the history of the tune and lyrics, see Diehl Katherine Smith Hymns And Tunes—An Index New York 1966 397 397 and Theron Brown, The Story Of Hymns And Tunes (Grand Rapids, MI, 1955), 438–439. Song-poems with the tune “Let the Lower Lights Be Burning,” include Arthur Cheesewright, “The Red Flag is Unfurled,” Labor Enquirer (Denver), Mar. 10, 1887. On the history of its tune, see Diehl, 379; Brown, 431–432; and Ira D. Sankey, Sacred Songs And Solos (New York, 1895), 82–83. Song-poems with the tune “Pull for the Shore” include B.M. Lawrence, “Down with the Bonds,” in B.M. Lawrence, The National Greenback Labor Songster (New York, 1878), 45, and Anon., “Nine Hours A Day,” Granite Cutters' Journal, 13 (April 1890), 1. On the tune, see Brown, 372–373; and Sankey, 82–83. Song-poems with the tune “Ninety and Nine” include Mrs. Holman, “Ninety and Nine,” Journal Of United Labor, 5 (July 1884), 750; Mrs. S.F. Smith, “Labor's Bye and Bye,” in Foner, 142, and James Tallmadge, “Labor's Ninety and Nine,” in Tallmadge, 25. On the tune's history, see Diehl, 926; and Julius Mattfield, Variety Music Cavalcade, 1620–1969 (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971), 152. Song-poems with the tune “Sweet Bye and Bye” include Anon., “Coming By and By,” Trades, Sept. 27, 1879; Anon., “Labor's By and By,” Labor Enquirer (Denver), July 2, 1887; B.M. Lawrence, “The Right Will Prevail,” in Lawrence, 3; and James Tallmadge, “Labor's By and By,” in Tallmadge, 11. On the history of the original tune, see Diehl, 1044; Mattfield, 128; McLoughlin, 237; and Lorenz, 99.
- A complete discussion of “Hold the Fort” appears in Paul Scheips’ booklet Hold the Fort! Washington, DC 1971
- Hume , Robert . 1867 . Labor Lyrics No. 9—Hymn . Boston Daily Evening Voice , Feb. 7
- Stewart , A. 1878 . Workingman's Doxology . National Labor Tribune , Nov. 30
- See, for example Hinchliffe Richard The Light Streams In Workingman's Advocate May 1872 18 and A.S. Farquharson, “Acrostic,” Cooper's Journal, 3 (July 1872), 406.
- Drury , Victor . 1887 . Labor is Noble and Holy . Journal Of United Labor , 7 June : 2427 – 2427 .
- Fitzpatrick , Brother . 1884 . Odes . Journal of United Labor , May : 702 – 702 .
- McGovern , Michael . 1899 . “ The Socialist Church ” . In Labor Lyrics 67 – 69 . Pittsburgh in Michael McGovern
- Anon. Trades Unions Iron Molders' Journal Sept. 1884 6 6
- Thompson , John . 1886 . The Red Flag . Knights Of Labor , Nov. 2
- Stephens , Uriah . 1880 . The Ideal Organization . Journal of United Labor , 1 June : 34 – 34 .
- In addition to the works above, see Sixth Corps Union Cooper's Journal Nov. 1871 2 423 424 Arthur Cheesewright, “The Shout of Protest,” Labor Enquirer (Chicago), Oct. 19, 1887; Dyer Lum, “Our Martyrs,” “The Martyrdom,” “Albert Richard Parsons,” “The Coming Day,” “Living Ghosts,” and “On the Way to Jericho,” in Dyer Lum, In Memoriam: Chicago, November 11, 1887 (Berkeley Heights, NJ, 1937); and Keil and Jentz, 499–508.
- Diabolicus . 1884 . Armageddon . Truth , Mar. 22
- The Knights of Labor song appears in Interesting Meetings Critic Aug. 1888 4
- See Dy Labor Lay Journal Of United Labor Sept. 1884 5 786 786 Francis Goodwin, “Knights of Labor Song,” Journal of United Labor, 7 (April 1887), 2359; Richard Hinchcliffe, “The Laborer's Prayer,” Workingman's Advocate, 18 May 18, 1872; Robert Hume, “Labor Lyrics No. 9—Hymn,” Boston Daily Evening Voice, Feb. 7, 1867; and B.M. Lawrence, “What We Want—Number 5,” Workingman's Advocate, May 23, 1868.
- Lawrence , B.M. 1868 . What We Want . Workingman's Advocate , April 18 April 25, 1868; May 16, 1868; May 23, 1868; May 30, 1868; June 6, 1868; and June 20, 1868.
- Lynch , Michael . 1893 . In The Promised Land . Journal Of United Labor , 13 April : 3 – 3 .
- See, for example, Liston Pope's classic account of the 1929 Gastonia, North Carolina textile strike: Millhands And Preachers New Haven 1942 See also Richard Reuss, “American Folklore and Left-Wing Politics, 1927–1957” (unpublished PhD diss., Indiana Univ. 1971), 136–137; and Frederick A. Barkey, “The Socialist Party in West Virginia From 1898–1920” (unpublished PhD diss. Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1971), 74–76. The importance of religion among Catholic and Jewish immigrant workers at the turn of the century is another issue entirely and one which cannot be addressed here.
Labor History
Volume 32, 1991 - Issue 2