EXODUS EXPLAINED—THE FATE OF SHIPS SOLD FROM NORWAY, 1970–1987

References

• 2000 . I am very grateful for the helpful comments from two anonymous referees. The article is a condensed version of a more extensive analysis from S. Tenold, ‘The Shipping Crisis of the 1970s: Causes, Effects and Implications for Norwegian Shipping’, unpublished PhD thesis, NHH (Bergen, 309–320
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• Det Norske Veritas The database is mainly based on the register of the leading Norwegian classification society. In the period covered by the article, all Norwegian-owned tonnage was included in their annual publication: Register of Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, Finnish and Icelandic Ships and of Other Ships classed with Det Norske Veritas. Additional sources used in the construction of the database are broker reports, primarily Review, published by Fearnley & Eger's Chartering Co., and the shipping press, primarily Norwegian Shipping News, Fairplay.
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• 1975 . Shipping under Flags of Convenience London There is a substantial literature on this shift in general and the growth of FoCs in particular; see for instance H.P. Drewry, Shipping Consultants, B.N. Metaxas, Flags of Convenience—A Study in Internationalisation (London, 1985) and ‘Notes on the Internationalisation Process in the Maritime Sector’, Maritime Policy and Management, 1 (1978), 51–71; S.R. Tolofari et al, ‘Shipping Costs and the Controversy over Open Registry’, The Journal of Industrial Economics, 4 (1986), 409–27; J.L. Eyre, ‘A Ship's Flag—Who Cares’, Maritime Policy and Management, 3 (1989), 179–87; S.K. Sletmo and S. Holste, ‘Shipping and the Competitive Advantage of Nations: the Role of International Ship Registers’, Maritime Policy and Management, 3 (1993), 243–55; H.A. Thanopoulo, ‘The Growth of Fleets Registered in the Newly Emerging Countries, and Maritime Crises’, Maritime Policy and Management, 1 (1995), 51–62, and ‘What Price the Flag? The Terms of Competitiveness in Shipping’, Marine Policy, 4–5 (1998), 359–74; T. Alderton and N. Winchester, ‘Regulation, Representation and the Flag Market’, Journal for Maritime Research, September (2002), and ‘Globalisation and Deregulation in the Maritime Industry’, Marine Policy, 26 (2002), 35–45. F.J.M. Llácer, ‘Open Registers: Past, Present and Future’, Marine Policy (2003), 513–23, gives a good introduction to the history of the FoCs
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• 1987 . Maritime Transport. The chart is based on deadweight tonnage (dwt) as listed in OECD, The FoCs included are Bahamas (1971 and 1982–), Bermuda, the Cayman Islands (1985–), Cyprus, Gibraltar (1985–), Liberia, Malta (1982–), Panama, Somalia (1970–7), Saint Vincent (1986–) and Vanuatu (Throughout the article, Japan is included among the OECD countries, and not among the Asian countries
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• It should be pointed out that, in addition to the aggregate shifts between the groups, there were substantial movements within the categories. For instance, the 20.7 million dwt reduction of the Liberian fleet in the period 1979–82 was almost fully matched by a growth of almost 19 million dwt for the Panama fleet
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• 2003 . Maritime Policy and Management , The countries included in the Asian fleet are China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Malaysia (1974–), the Philippines, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan. With regard to Singapore, a case can be made for including the country among the FoCs, at least for the early part of the period; see S. Tenold, ‘A Most Convenient Flag—the Basis for the Expansion of the Singapore Fleet, 1969–1982’, 3, 255–68. Asian countries with fleets of less than 400,000 grt have not been included
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• The average annual compound growth rates were 17.5 per cent, 16.5 per cent, 15.1 per cent and 19.9 per cent for China, Hong Kong, the Philippines and Singapore respectively. The group as a whole increased its tonnage from 11.5 million dwt in 1970 to more than 93 million dwt in 1987
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• The growing size and reduced age of the vessels sold abroad can to some extent be explained by similar developments in the Norwegian fleet. However, even when we adjust for this, the trends are evident; the ships sold from Norway became more modern—both with regard to age and size
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• The expansion during the 1970s is reflected in the fact that more than 60 per cent of the tonnage sold from Norway to other OECD countries went on to be registered in Greece
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• 1979 . American Journal of International Law 73 , The term ‘genuine link’ can be found in Article 5 of the Convention on the High Seas, adopted by the UN Conference on the Law of the Sea in 1958: ‘There must exist a genuine link between the State and the ship; in particular, the State must effectively exercise its jurisdiction and control in administrative, technical and social matters over ships flying its flag’. See E. Osieke, ‘Flag of Convenience Vessels: Recent Developments’, 4, for a more formal discussion of this element
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• 2000 . International Maritime Statistics Forum A relatively recent exception is J. Dowden and S. Reynolds, ‘Report to the European Commission (DG Tren) on the Development of a Commercial Ship Database Variable indicating Country of Economic Benefit’, where the ‘Country of Economic Benefit’ is the focus of the analysis. For a detailed study of flags, see also Alderton and Winchester, ‘Regulation, Representation and the Flag Market’
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• For a presentation of the countries included in the various groups, see Tenold, ‘The Shipping Crisis of the 1970s’, 316–17
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• The term ‘nationality’ in this respect may be a bit misleading, as the table is based on the business address of the companies or individuals purchasing the ships. Exiled Greeks in the US and the UK have consequently not been included among the Greek nationals. The fact that the number of vessels transferred to the Greek flag is higher than the number of vessels bought by Greek owners reflects the fact that the exiled Greeks often let their ships fly the Greek flag. A total of 45 ships flying the Greek flag, amounting to more than 1.2 million grt, was owned by UK-based companies or individuals, and 11 ships, comprising 370,000grt, was flying the Greek flag but owned by US-based companies or individuals
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• 1983 . Skipsfartens konkurranseevne Norges Offentlige Utredninger, 7 [The competitiveness of shipping], 54
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• 1985 . International Organization , In 1979 the four leading FoC users (the US, Greece, Hong Kong and Japan) accounted for 86 per cent of the FoC-registered tankers and 80 per cent of the bulk/combined carriers; see the figures from UNCTAD reprinted in A.W. Cafruny, ‘The Political Economy of International Shipping: Europe versus America’, 39 (1) 110–11
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• Dowden and Reynolds, ‘Report to the European Commission’, 1
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