The Impact of Covariates on Statistical Power in Cluster Randomized Designs: Which Level Matters More?

REFERENCES

• Bloom , H. S. 2005 . Learning more from social experiments New York , NY : Sage. .
   Google Scholar
• Bloom , H. S. , Richburg-Hayes , L. and Black , A. R. 2007 . Using covariates to improve precision for studies that randomize schools to evaluate educational interventions . Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis , 29 : 30 – 59 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borman , G. D. , Slavin , R. E. , Cheung , A. , Chamberlain , A. M. , Madden , N. A. and Chambers , B. 2005 . Success for all: First-year results from the national randomized field trial . Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis , 27 : 1 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boruch , R. F. 1997 . Randomized experiments for planning and evaluation. Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage. .
   Google Scholar
• Boruch , R. , Weisburd , D. and Berk , R. 2010 . “ Place randomized trials. ” . In Handbook of quantitative criminology Edited by: Piquero , A. and Weisburd , David . 481 – 502 . New York , NY : Springer. .
   Google Scholar
• Cochran , W. G. 1977 . Sampling techniques New York , NY : Wiley. .
   Google Scholar
• Cook , T. D. 2005 . Emergent principles for the design, implementation, and analysis of cluster-based experiments in social science . The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 599 : 176 – 198 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , R. and Taylor , B. 1997 . A proactive response to family violence: The results of a randomized experiment . Criminology , 35 : 307 – 333 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donner , A. and Klar , N. 2000 . Design and analysis of cluster randomization trials in health research London , , UK : Arnold. .
   Google Scholar
• Hedges , L. V. and Hedberg , E. 2007 . ICC values for planning group randomized trials in Education . Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis , 29 : 60 – 87 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirk , R. E. 1995 . Experimental design: Procedures for the behavioral sciences, , 3rd ed. Pacific Grove , CA : Brooks/Cole. .
   Google Scholar
• Konstantopoulos , S. 2008a . The power of the test for treatment effects in three-level cluster randomized designs . Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness , 1 : 66 – 88 .
   Google Scholar
• Konstantopoulos , S. 2008b . Do small classes reduce the achievement gap between low and high achievers? Evidence from Project STAR . Elementary School Journal , 108 : 275 – 291 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konstantopoulos , S. 2009 . Incorporating cost in power analysis for three-level cluster randomized designs . Evaluation Review , 33 : 335 – 357 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konstantopoulos , S. and Hedges , L. V. 2008 . How large an effect can we expect from school reforms? . Teachers College Record , 110 : 1613 – 1640 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreft , I. G. G. , de Leeuw , J. and Aiken , L. S. 1995 . The effects of different forms of centering in hierarchical linear models . Multivariate Behavioral Research , 30 : 1 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leviton , L. C. , Baker , C. S. , Hassol , A. and Goldenberg , R. L. 1995 . An exploration of opinion and practice patterns affecting the use of antenatal corticosteroids . American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology , 173 : 312 – 316 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lohr , S. L. 1999 . Sampling: Design and analysis. Pacific Grove , CA : Duxbury Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Morrow , A. L. , Guerrero , M. L. , Shults , J. , Calva , J. J. , Lutter , C. , Bravo , J. and Butterfoss , F. D. 1999 . Efficacy of home-based peer counseling to promote exclusive breastfeeding: A randomized controlled trial . Lancet , 353 : 1226 – 1231 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mosteller , F. , Light , R. J. and Sachs , J. A. 1996 . Sustained inquiry in education: Lessons learned from skill grouping and class size . Harvard Educational Review , 66 : 797 – 842 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray , D. M. 1998 . Design and analysis of group-randomized trials New York , NY : Oxford University Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Murray , D. M. and Blitstein , J. L. 2003 . Methods to reduce the impact of intraclass correlation in group-randomized trials . Evaluation Review , 27 : 79 – 103 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray , D. M. , Van Horn , M. L. , Hawkins , J. D. and Arthur , M. W. 2006 . Analysis strategies for a community trial to reduce adolescent ATOD use: A comparison of random coefficient and ANOVA/ANCOVA models . Contemporary Clinical Trials , 27 : 188 – 206 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker , S. W. and Teruel , G. M. 2005 . Randomization and social program evaluation: The case of progresa . Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 599 : 199 – 219 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raudenbush , S. W. 1997 . Statistical analysis and optimal design for cluster randomized trials . Psychological Methods , 2 : 173 – 185 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raudenbush , S. W. and Bryk , A. S. 2002 . Hierarchical linear models Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage. .
   Google Scholar
• Walker , R. , Heller , R. , Redman , S. , O'Connell , D. and Boulton , J. 1992 . Reduction of ischemic heart disease risk markers in the teenage children of heart attack patients . Preventive Medicine , 21 : 616 – 629 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar