Phylogenetics of the rust fungi (Pucciniales) of South Africa, with notes on their life histories and possible origins

LITERATURE CITED

• Aime MC. 2006. Towards resolving family-level relationships in rust fungi (Uredinales). Mycoscience. 47:112–122. doi: 10.1007/s10267-006-0281-0.
   Google Scholar
• Aime MC, Bell CD, Wilson AW. 2018. Deconstructing the evolutionary complexity between rust fungi (Pucciniales) and their plant hosts. Stud Mycol. 89:143–152. doi: 10.1016/j.simyco.2018.02.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aime MC, McTaggart AR. 2021. A higher-rank classification for rust fungi, with notes on genera. Fungal Syst Evol. 7:21–47. doi: 10.3114/fuse.2021.07.02.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aime MC, McTaggart AR, Mondo SJ, Duplessis S. 2017. Phylogenetics and phylogenomics of rust fungi. Adv Genet. 100:267–307. doi: 10.1016/bs.adgen.2017.09.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altschul SF, Gish W, Miller W, Myers EW, Lipman DJ. 1990. Basic local alignment search tool. J Mol Biol. 215:403–410. doi: 10.1016/S0022-2836(05)80360-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson JM, Anderson HM, Cleal CJ. 2007. A brief history of gymnosperms: classification, biodiversity, phytogeography and ecology. Strelitzia 20. Pretoria (South Africa): South African National Biodiversity Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Anikster Y, Eilam T, Manisterski J, Leonard KJ. 2003. Self-fertility and other distinguishing characteristics of a new morphotype of Puccinia coronata pathogenic on smooth brome grass. Mycologia. 95:87–97. doi: 10.1080/15572536.2004.11833135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anikster Y, Moseman JG, Wahl I. 1980. Development of basidia and basidiospores in Uromyces species on Wild barley and Liliaceae in Israel. Trans Br Mycol Soc. 75:377–382. doi: 10.1016/S0007-1536(80)80116-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anikster Y, Szabo LJ, Eilam T, Manisterski J, Koike ST, Bushnell WR. 2004. Morphology, life cycle, biology, and DNA sequence analysis of rust fungi on Garlic and Chives from California. Phytopathol. 94:569–577. doi: 10.1094/PHYTO.2004.94.6.569.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anikster Y, Wahl I. 1979. Coevolution of the rust fungi on Gramineae and Liliaceae and their hosts. Annu Rev Phytopathol. 17:367–403. doi: 10.1146/annurev.py.17.090179.002055.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arthur JC. 1904. The aecidium of maize rust. Botanical Gazette. 38:64–67. doi: 10.1086/328521.
   Google Scholar
• Arthur JC. 1905. Cultures of Uredineae in 1904. J Mycol. 11:50–67. doi: 10.2307/3752724.
   Google Scholar
• Arthur JC. 1906. Cultures of Uredineae in 1905. J Mycol. 12:11–27. doi: 10.2307/3752702.
   Google Scholar
• Arthur JC. 1928. Notes on Arctic Uredinales. Mycologia. 20:41–43. doi: 10.1080/00275514.1928.12016897.
   Google Scholar
• Arthur JC. 1962. Manual of the rusts in United States and Canada. 2nd, New York (NY, USA): Hafner Publishing co. (with a supplement by G.B. Cummins).
   Google Scholar
• Beenken L. 2014. Pucciniales on Annona (Annonaceae) with special focus on the genus Phakopsora. Mycol Progr. 13:791–809. doi: 10.1007/s11557-014-0963-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beenken L. 2017. Austropuccinia: a new genus name for the myrtle rust Puccinia psidii placed within the redefined family Sphaerophragmiaceae (Pucciniales). Phytotaxa. 297:53–61. doi: 10.11646/phytotaxa.297.1.5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beenken L, Berndt R. 2010. Rust fungi on Annonaceae: the genus Sphaerophragmium. Mycologia. 102:650–663. doi: 10.3852/09-173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beenken L, Wood AR. 2015. Puccorchidium and Sphenorchidium, two new genera of Pucciniales on Annonaceae related to Puccinia psidii and the genus Dasyspora. Mycol Prog. 14:14. doi: 10.1007/s11557-015-1073-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beenken L, Zoller S, Berndt R. 2012. Rust fungi on annonaceae II: the genus Dasyspora Berk. & M.A. Curtis Mycologia. 104:659–681. doi: 10.3852/11-068.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berbee ML, Taylor JW. 1993. Dating the evolutionary radiations of the true fungi. Can J Bot. 71:1114–1127. doi: 10.1139/b93-131.
   Google Scholar
• Berndt R. 2008. The rust mycobiota of southern Africa: species richness, composition, and affinities. Mycol Res. 112:463–471. doi: 10.1016/j.mycres.2007.05.005.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Berndt R. 2008b. The rust fungi (Uredinales) on ferns in South Africa. Mycol Progr. 7:7–19. doi: 10.1007/s11557-007-0548-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berndt R. 2009. New species of rust fungi (Uredinales) from South Africa and new observations on known species. Mycol Progr. 8:99–114. doi: 10.1007/s11557-008-0582-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berndt R. 2011. Taxonomic revision of Endoraecium digitatum (rust fungi, Uredinales) with description of four new species from Australia and Hawaii. Mycol Progr. 10:497–517. doi: 10.1007/s11557-010-0719-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berndt R. 2012. Species richness, taxonomy and peculiarities of the neotropical rust fungi: are they more diverse in the Neotropics? Biodivers Conservat. 21:2299–2322. doi: 10.1007/s10531-011-0220-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berndt R, Wood AR. 2012. Additions to the rust fungi of South Africa. Mycol Progr. 11:483–497. doi: 10.1007/s11557-011-0764-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisby GR. 1920. Short cycle Uromyces of North America. Bot Gaz. 69:193–217. doi: 10.1086/332635.
   Google Scholar
• Boshoff WHP, Wood AR, Visser B, Bender CM, Joubert L, Richter J, Aime MC, Pretorius ZA. 2022. The life cycle of Puccinia digitariae on Digitaria eriantha and Solanum species in South Africa. Mycologia. 114:319–336. doi: 10.1080/00275514.2022.2031493.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buller AHR. 1950. Researches on fungi. Vol. VII. The sexual process in the Uredinales. Toronto: University of Toronto Press; p. 1–458.
   Google Scholar
• Buriticá P. 2003. Centros naturales de diversificación en el orden Uredinales (Fungi, Royas). Revista Facultad Nacional de Agronomía Medellin. 56:1999–2019.
   Google Scholar
• Choi Y-J, Thines M 2015. Host jumps and radiation, not co-divergence drives diversification of obligate pathogens. A case study in Downy Mildews and Asteraceae. PloS ONE. 10(e0133655). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0133655.
   Google Scholar
• Couvreur TLP, Pirie MD, Chatrou LW, Saunders RMK, Ycf S, Richardson JE, Erkens RHJ. 2011. Early evolutionary history of the flowering plant family Annonaceae: steady diversification and boreotropical geodispersal. J Biogeograph. 38:664–680. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02434.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowling RM, Hilton-Taylor C. 1997. Phytogeography, flora and endemism. In: Cowling RM, Richardson DM, Pierce SM, editors. Vegetation of southern Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cowling RM, Potts AJ, Franklin J, Midgley GF, Engelbrecht F, Marean CW. 2020. Describing a drowned pleistocene ecosystem: last glacial maximum vegetation reconstruction of the palaeo-agulhas plain. Quat Sci Rev. 235:105866. doi: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.105866.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crane PE, Peterson RS. 2007. Mikronegeria fuchsiae sp. nov. a rust fungus on Fuchsia and Phyllocladus in New Zealand. New Zealand J Bot. 45:707–713. doi: 10.1080/00288250709509745.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crisp MD, Cook LG. 2011. Cenozoic extinctions account for the low diversity of extant gymnosperms compared with angiosperms. New Phytol. 192:997–1009. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03862.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummins GB. 1945. Descriptions of tropical rusts – VII. Bull Torrey Bot Club. 72:205–222. doi: 10.2307/2481275.
   Google Scholar
• Cummins GB. 1953. The species of Puccinia parasitic on the Andropogoneae. Uredineana. 4:5–89.
   Google Scholar
• Cummins GB. 1960. Descriptions of tropical rusts – IX. Bull Torrey Bot Club. 87:31–45. doi: 10.2307/2483059.
   Google Scholar
• Cummins GB. 1979. Annotated, illustrated, host index of Sonoran desert rust fungi. Mycotaxon. 10:1–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummins GB, Hiratsuka Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. St. Paul (USA): American Phytopathological Society.
   Google Scholar
• Cunningham GH. 1931. The rust fungi of New Zealand; together with the biology, cytology and therapeutics of the Uredinales. John McIndoe; Dunedin NZ.
   Google Scholar
• Dagallier L-PMJ, Janssens SB, Dauby G, Blach-Overgaard A, Mackinder BA, Droissart V, Svenning J-C, Sosef MSM, Stévart T, Harris DJ, et al. 2020. Cradles and museums of genetic plant diversity across tropical Africa. New Phytol. 225:2196–2215. doi: 10.1111/nph.16293.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deighton FC. 1936. Preliminary list of fungi and diseases of plants in Sierra Leone. Bull Misc Inform Kew. 7:397–424. doi: 10.2307/4111838.
   Google Scholar
• Dietel P. 1895. Ueber Rostpilze mit wiederholter Aecidienbildung. Flora. 81:394–404.
   Google Scholar
• Dietel P. 1906. Monographie der gattung Ravenelia Berk. Beihefte zum Botanischen Centralblad. 20:343–413.
   Google Scholar
• Dixon LJ, Castlebury LA, Aime MC, Glynn NC, Comstock JC. 2010. Phylogenetic relationships of sugarcane rust fungi. Mycol Progr. 9:459–468. doi: 10.1007/s11557-009-0649-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doidge EM. 1927. A preliminary study of the South African rust fungi. Bothalia. 2:1–228. doi: 10.4102/abc.v2i1.1787.
   Google Scholar
• Doidge EM. 1948. South African rust fungi V. Bothalia. 4:895–918. doi: 10.4102/abc.v4i4.1736.
   Google Scholar
• Doidge EM. 1950. The South African fungi and lichens to the end of 1945. Bothalia. 5:1–1094.
   Google Scholar
• Donovan MP, Wilf P, Iglesias A, Cúneo NR, Labandeira CC. 2020. Persistent biotic interactions of a Gondwanan conifer from cretaceous Patagonia to modern Malesia. Commun Biol. 3:708. doi: 10.1038/s42003-020-01428-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doungsa-ard C, McTaggart AR, Geering ADW, Shivas RG. 2018. Diversity of gall-forming rusts (Uromycladium, Pucciniales) on Acacia in Australia. Persoonia. 40:221–238. doi: 10.3767/persoonia.2018.40.09.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunhin BJ, Pretorius ZA, Bender CM, Kloppers FJ, Flett BC. 2004. Description of spore stages of Puccinia sorghi in South Africa. S Afr J Plant Soil. 21:48–52. doi: 10.1080/02571862.2004.10635021.
   Google Scholar
• Ebinghaus M, Dos Santos MDM, Gsss T, Macagnan D, Carvalho EA, Dianese JC. 2023. Raveneliopsis, a new genus of ravenelioid rust fungi on Cenostigma (Caesalpinioideae) from the Brazilian Cerrado and Caatinga. Mycologia. 115:263–276. doi: 10.1080/00275514.2023.2177048.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebinghaus M, Maier W, Wingfield MJ, Begerow D. 2018. New host associations and a novel species for the gall-inducing acacia rust genus Ravenelia in South Africa. Mycokeys. 43:1–21. doi: 10.3897/mycokeys.43.25090.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebinghaus M, Wingfield MJ, Begerow D, Maier W. 2020. The genus Ravenelia in South Africa. Mycol Progr. 19:259–290. doi: 10.1007/s11557-020-01556-w.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edgar RC. 2004. MUSCLE: multiple sequence alignment with high accuracy and high throughput. Nucleic Acids Res. 32:1792–1797. doi: 10.1093/nar/gkh340.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards EJ, Osborne CP, Strömberg CAE, Smith SA, Bond WA, Christin P-A, Cousins AB, Duvall MR, Fox DL, Freckleton RP, et al. 2010. The origins of C4 grasslands: integrating evolutionary and ecosystem science. Science. 328:587–591. doi: 10.1126/science.1177216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans HC. 1993. Studies on the rust Maravalia cryptostegiae, a potential biological control agent of rubber-vine weed (Cryptostegia frandiflora, Asclepiadaceae: periplocoideae) in Australia, I: life-cycle. Mycopathologia. 124:163–174. doi: 10.1007/BF01103734.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farr DF, Rossman AY. 2021. U.S. National Fungus Collections, ARS, USDA Fungal Databases. Retrieved June 10, 2021, from https://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/
   Google Scholar
• Faul JH. 1939. A review and extension of our knowledge of Calyptospora goeppertiana Kuehn. J Arnold Arbor. 20:104–113. doi: 10.5962/p.185400.
   Google Scholar
• Fraser WP, Ledingham GA. 1933. Studies of the crown rust, Puccinia coronata Corda. Sci Agric. 13:313–323.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner DE. 1994. The native rust fungi of Hawaii. Can J Bot. 72:976–989. doi: 10.1139/b94-123.
   Google Scholar
• Gäuman E, Müller E. 1957. Über den entwicklungsgang der Puccinia oxyriae Fckl. Phytopathologische Zeitschrift. 30:327–328.
   Google Scholar
• Germishuizen G, Meyer NL, Steenkamp Y, Keith M, editors. 2006. A checklist of South African plants. Southern African botanical diversity network report. 41. SABONET; Pretoria.
   Google Scholar
• Gheerbrant E, Rage J-C. 2006. Paleobiogeography of Africa: how distinct from Gondwana and Laurasia? Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol. 241:224–246. doi: 10.1016/j.paleo.2006.03.016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gjærum HB. 1974. Nordens Rustopper. Fungiflora (Oslo).
   Google Scholar
• Gjærum HB. 1985. East African rusts (Uredinales), mainly from Uganda 4. On families belonging to Apetalae and Polypetalae. Mycotaxon. 24:237–273.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gjærum HB. 1995. Rust fungi from various countries. Lidia. 3:145–170.
   Google Scholar
• Gjærum HB. 1998. Rust fungi from various countries – II. Agrica. 15(24/25).
   Google Scholar
• Gjærum HB, Cummins GB. 1982. Rust fungi (Uredinales) on East African Alchemilla. Mycotaxon. 15:420–424.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guerra FA, De Rossi RL, Brücher E, Vuletic E, Plazas MC, Guerra GD, Ducasse DA. 2019. Occurrence of the complete cycle of Puccinia sorghi Schw. in Argentina and implications on the common corn rust epidemiology. Eur J Plant Pathol. 154:171–177. doi: 10.1007/s10658-018-01645-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo X, Tang CC, Thomas DC, Couvreur TLP, Saunders RMK. 2017. A mega-phylogeny of the Annonaceae: taxonomic placement of five enigmatic genera and support for a new tribe, Phoenicantheae. Sci Rep. 7:7323. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-07252-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart JA. 1988. Rust fungi and host plant coevolution: do primitive hosts harbor primitive parasites? Cladistics. 4:339–366. doi: 10.1111/j.1096-0031.1988.tb00519.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hecke L. 1906. Infektionsversuche mit Puccinia maydis Bereng. Annales Mycologici. 14:418–420.
   Google Scholar
• Hennen JF, Buriticá PC. 1980. A brief summary of modern rust taxonomic and evolutionary theory. Rep Tottori Mycol Inst. 18:243–256.
   Google Scholar
• Hennen JF, Figueiredo MB, De Carvaldo AA, Hennen PG (2005) Catalogue of the species of plant rust fungi (Uredinales) of Brazil. Published online by Instituto de Pesquisas Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://www.jbrj.gov.br ( Accessed 8 July 2009).
   Google Scholar
• Hennings P. 1907. Uredinaceae. Annales du Musee du Congo. Series 5, fasc. 2:88–96.
   Google Scholar
• Hernández JR, Hennen JF. 2003. Rust fungi causing galls, witches’ brooms, and other abnormal plant growths in northwestern Argentina. Mycologia. 95:728–755. doi: 10.1080/15572536.2004.11833076.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hiratsuka Y. 1973. The nuclear cycle and the terminology of spore states in Uredinales. Mycologia. 65:432–443. doi: 10.1080/00275514.1973.12019451.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ireland KB, Hunter GC, Wood AR, Delaisse C, Morin L. 2019. Evaluation of the rust fungus Puccinia rapipes for biological control of Lycium ferocissimum (African boxthorn) in Australia: life cycle, taxonomy and pathogenicity. Fungal Biol. 123:811–823. doi: 10.1016/j.funbio.2019.08.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson HS. 1931. Present evolutionary tendencies and the origin of life cycles in the Uredinales. Mem Torrey Bot Club. 18:5–108.
   Google Scholar
• Jackson HS. 1935. The nuclear cycle in Herpobasidium filicinum with a discussion of the significance of homothallism in basidiomycetes. Mycologica. 27:439–552. doi: 10.1080/00275514.1935.12017100.
   Google Scholar
• Ji J-X, Li Z, Li Y, Kakishima M. 2019. Life cycle of Nothoravenelia japonica and its phylogenetic position in Pucciniales, with special reference to the genus Phakopsora. Mycol Progr. 18:855–864. doi: 10.1007/s11557-019-01496-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kakishima M, Sato T, Sato S. 1984. Notes on two rust fungi, Pileolaria klugkistiana and Nyssopsora cedrelae. Trans Mycol Soc Japan. 25:355–359.
   Google Scholar
• Koch RA, Lodge DJ, Sourell S, Nakasone K, Mccoy AG, Aime MC. 2018. Tying up loose threads: revised taxonomy and phylogeny of an avian-dispersed Neotropical rhizomorph-forming fungus. Mycol Progr. 17:989–998. doi: 10.1007/s11557-018-1411-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leppik EE. 1953. Some viewpoints on the phylogeny of rust fungi. I. Coniferous Rusts. Mycologia. 45:46–73. doi: 10.1080/00275514.1953.12024250.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li H-T, Yi T-S, Gao L-M, Ma P-F, Zhang T, Yang J-B, Gitzendanner MA, Fritsch PW, Cai J, Luo Y, et al. 2019. Origin of angiosperms and the puzzle of the Jurassic gap. Nature Plants. 5:461–470. doi: 10.1038/s41477-019-0421-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linder HP. 2003. The radiation of the Cape flora, southern Africa. Biol Rev. 78:597–638. doi: 10.1017/S1464793103006171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linder HP. 2014. The evolution of African plant diversity. Front Ecol Evol. 2:38. doi: 10.3389/fevo.2014.0038.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linder HP, de Klerk HM, Born J, Burgess ND, Fjeldså J, Rahbek C. 2012. The partinioning of Africa: statistically defined biogeographical regions in sub-Saharan Africa. J Biogeograph. 39:1189–1205. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2012.02728.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lohsomboon P, Kakishima M, Ono Y. 1994. A monograph of Sphaerophragmium (Uredinales). Mycol Res. 98:907–918. doi: 10.1016/S0953-7562(09)80262-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long WH. 1903. The ravenelias of the United States and Mexico. Botanical Gazette. 35:111–133. doi: 10.1086/328324.
   Google Scholar
• LPWG Legume Phylogeny Working Group. 2017. A new subfamily classification of the Leguminosae based on a taxonomically comprehensive phylogeny. Taxon. 66:44–77. doi: 10.12705/661.3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu Y, Ran J-H, Guo D-M, Yang Z-Y, Wang X-Q. 2014. Phylogeny and divergence times of gymnosperms inferred from single-copy nuclear genes. PLoS One. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107679.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lutzoni F, Nowak MD, Alfaro ME, Reeb V, Miadlikowska J, Krug M, Arnold AE, Lewis LA, Swofford DL, Hibbett D, et al. 2018. Contemporaneous radiations of fungi and plants linked to symbiosis. Nat Commun. 9:5451. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-07849-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacRae C. 1999. Life etched in stone. Fossils of South Africa. The geological society of South Africa. Johannesburg.
   Google Scholar
• Magallón S, Gómez-Acevedo S, Sánchez-Reyes L, Hernández T H. 2015. A metacalibrated time-tree documents the early rise of flowering plant phylogenetic diversity. New Phytol. 207:437–453. doi: 10.1111/nph.13264.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magallón S, Hilu KW, Quandt D. 2013. Land plant evolutionary timeline: gene effects are secondary to fossil constraints in relaxed clock estimation of age and substitution rates. Am J Bot. 100:556–573. doi: 10.3732/ajb.1200416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahindapala R. 1978. Occurrence of maize rust, Puccinia sorghi, in England. Trans Br Mycol Soc. 70:393–399. doi: 10.1016/S0007-1536(78)80138-7.
   Google Scholar
• Maier W, McTaggart AR, Roux J, Wingfield MJ. 2016. Phakopsora myrtacearum sp. nov. a newly described rust (Pucciniales) on eucalypts in eastern and southern Africa. Plant Pathol. 65:189–195. doi: 10.1111/ppa.12406.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maier W, Wingfield BD, Mennincken M, Wingfield MJ. 2007. Polyphyly and two emerging lineages in the rust genera Puccinia and Uromyces. Mycol Res. 111:176–185. doi: 10.1016/j.mycres.2006.11.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin LA, Evans DL, Castlebury LA, Sifundza JT, Comstock JC, Rutherford RS, McFarlane SA. 2017. Macuropyxis fulva sp. nov. a new rust (Pucciniales) infecting sugarcane in southern Africa. Australas Plant Pathol. 46:63–74. doi: 10.1007/s13313-016-0460-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAlpine D. 1906. The rusts of Australia. Melbourne: Government Printer.
   Google Scholar
• McCarthy T, Rubridge B. 2005. The story of earth and life. A southern African perspective on a 4.6-billion-year journey. Struik, Cape Town.
   Google Scholar
• McKenzie EHC. 1998. Rust fungi of New Zealand – an introduction, and list of recorded species. New Zealand J Bot. 36:233–271. doi: 10.1080/0028825X.1998.9512564.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKenzie EHC. 2008. Rust fungi in the subantartic islands of New Zealand. Mycoscience. 49:1–10. doi: 10.1007/s10267-007-0385-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McTaggart AR, Beasley DR, Wingfield MJ, Wood AR, Pretorius ZA, Drenth A, Shivas RG, Roux J. 2017. A dynamic, web-based resource to identify rust fungi (Pucciniales) in southern Africa. MycoKeys. 26:77–83. doi: 10.3897/mycokeys.26.14602.
   Google Scholar
• McTaggart AR, du Plessis E, Roux J, Barnes I, Fraser S, Granados GM, Ho WWH, Shuey LS, Drenth A. 2020. Sexual reproduction in populations of Austropuccinia psidii. Eur J Plant Pathol. 156:537–545. doi: 10.1007/s10658-019-01903-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McTaggart AR, Geering ADW, Shivas RG. 2014. Uredinopsis pteridis and Desmella aneimiae, the first rust fungi (Pucciniales) reported on ferns (Pteridophyta) in Australia. Australas Plant Dis Notes. 9:149. doi: 10.1007/s13314-014-0149-7.
   Google Scholar
• McTaggart AR, Shivas RG, van der Nest MA, Roux J, Wingfield BD, Wingfield MJ. 2016. Host jumps shaped the diversity of extant rust fungi (Pucciniales). New Phytol. 209:1149–1158. doi: 10.1111/nph.13686.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McTaggart AR, Shuey LS, Granadosa GM, du Plessis E, Fraaser S, Barnes I, Naidoo S, Wingfield MJ, Roux J. 2018. Evidence that Austropuccinia psidii may complete its sexual life cycle on Myrtaceae. Plant Pathol. 67:729–734. doi: 10.1111/ppa.12763.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mennicken M, Maier W, Oberwinkler F. 2005. A contribution to the rust flora (Uredinales) of southern Africa, with an emphasis on Namibia. Mycol Progr. 4:55–75. doi: 10.1007/s11557-006-0109-5.
   Google Scholar
• Miller MA, Pfeiffer W, Schwartz T (2010) Creating the CIPRES Science Gateway for inference of large phylogenetic trees. Proceedings of the Gateway Computing Environments Workshop (GCE), New Orleans, LA, 1–8. DOI 10.1109/GCE.2010.5676129
   Google Scholar
• Minnis AM, McTaggart AR, Rossman AY, Aime MC. 2012. Taxonomy of mayapple rust: the genus Allodus resurrected. Mycologia. 104:942–950. doi: 10.3852/11-350.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mucina L, Rutherford MC, editors. 2006. The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Strelitzia. 19:1–807.
   Google Scholar
• Nattrass RM. 1961. Host lists of Kenya fungi and bacteria. Mycol Res. 81:1–46.
   Google Scholar
• Oberlander KC, Dreyer LL, Esler KJ. 2002. Biogeography of Oxalis (oxalidaceae) in South Africa: a preliminary study. Bothalia. 32:97–100. doi: 10.4102/abc.v32i1.472.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ono Y. 2002. The diversity of nuclear cycle in microcyclic rust fungi (Uredinales) and its ecological and evolutionary implications. Mycoscience. 43:421–439. doi: 10.1007/S102670200062.
   Google Scholar
• Ono Y, Hennen JF. 1979. Teliospore ontogeny in Ypsilospora baphiae and Y. africana sp. nov. Trans Br Mycol Soc. 73:229–233. doi: 10.1016/S0007-1536(79)80106-0.
   Google Scholar
• Ono Y, Kakishima M, Harada Y. 1987. Blastospora itoana on Smilax nipponica forms a Caeoma stage on Prunus grayana in Japan. Mycologia. 79:668–673. doi: 10.1080/00275514.1987.12025445.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ono Y, Kakishima M, Kudo A, Sato S. 1986. Blastospora smilacis, a teleomorph of Caeoma makinoi, and its sorus development. Mycologia. 78:253–262. doi: 10.1080/00275514.1986.12025237.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osborne CP. 2008. Atmosphere, ecology and evolution: what drove the Miocene expansion of C4 grasslands? J Ecol. 96:35–45. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2745.2007.01323.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Otálora MAG, Berndt R. 2018. A taxonomic revision of the genus Puccinia on Lycieae, a tribe of Solanaceae. Mycologia. 110:692–709. doi: 10.1080/00275514.2018.1478538.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Padamsee M, McKenzie EHC. 2017. The intriguing and convoluted life of a heteroecious rust fungus in New Zealand. Plant Pathol. 66:1248–1257. doi: 10.1111/ppa.12672.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parmelee JA, Corlett M. 1996. Fungi Canadenses (1973–1990), Uredinales (Rusts ~ Roouilles). Ottawa: National Mycological Herbarium, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.
   Google Scholar
• Patil BV, Thirumalachar MJ. 1964. A new aecial host for Puccinia vesicolor. Curr Sci. 8:253.
   Google Scholar
• Patil BV, Thirumalachar MJ. 1969. Life history and relationship of Uromyces clignyi. Indian Phytopathol. 22:225–228.
   Google Scholar
• Patil BV, Thirumalachar MJ. 1972. Morphology of spore forms and heteroecism in Puccinia agrophila. Indian Phytopathol. 25:205–209.
   Google Scholar
• Patouillard N. 1901. Champignons Algéro-Tinisiens nouveaux ou pau connus. Bulletin de la Société Mycologique de France. 17:184–187.
   Google Scholar
• Peterson RH. 1974. The rust fungus life cycle. Bot Rev. 40:433–513.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson RS. 1968. Rust fungi on Auracariaceae. Mycopathologia. 34:17–26.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson RS. 1974. Rust fungi with Caeoma-like sori on conifers. Mycologia. 66:242–255. doi: 10.1080/00275514.1974.12019599.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson RS, Oehrens E. 1978. Mikronegeria alba (Uredinales). Mycologia. 70:321–331. doi: 10.1080/00275514.1978.12020232.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piepenbring M, Hofmann TA, Kirschner R, Mangelsdorff R, Perdomo O, Rodríguez Justavino D, Trampe T. 2011. Diversity patterns of Neotropical plant parasitic microfungi. Ecotropica. 17:27–40.
   Google Scholar
• Pole-Evans M. 1923. Rusts in South Africa, I. A sketch of the life cycle of the rust on besem grass and wild sweet pea. Union of South Africa. Dept Agric Sci Bull. (23):1–8.
   Google Scholar
• Pole-Evans M. 1923b. Rusts in South Africa, II. A sketch of the life cycle of the rust on Mielie and Oxalis. Union of South Africa. Dept Agric Sci Bull. (24):1–8.
   Google Scholar
• Pretorius ZA, Bender CM, Visser B. 2015. The rusts of wild rye in South Africa. S Afr J Bot. 96:94–98. doi: 10.1016/j.sajb.2014.10.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Putterill VA. 1918. Notes on the morphology and life history of Uromyces aloes Cooke. S Afr J Sci. 15:656–662.
   Google Scholar
• Ramakrishnan TS, Sundaram NV. 1952. A new rust on Antidesma in India. Trans Br Mycol Soc. 35:26–28. doi: 10.1016/S0007-1536(52)80004-X.
   Google Scholar
• Rice MA. 1933. Reproduction in the rusts. Bull Torrey Bot Club. 60:23–54. doi: 10.2307/2480487.
   Google Scholar
• Riley EA. 1960. A revised list of plant diseases in Tanganyika territory. Mycol Res. 75:1–42.
   Google Scholar
• Ritschel A. 2005. Monograph of the genus Hemileia (Uredinales). Bibl Mycol. 200:1–132.
   Google Scholar
• Savile DBO. 1953. Short-season adaptations in the rust fungi. Mycologia. 45:75–87. doi: 10.1080/00275514.1953.12024251.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savile DBO. 1972. Artic adaptations in plants. Canada Dept Agric Monograph. (6):1–81.
   Google Scholar
• Saville DBO. 1976. Evolution of the rust fungi (Uredinales) as reflected by their ecological problems. Evol Biol. 9:137–207.
   Google Scholar
• Schmiedeknecht M. 1986. Reduktions- und förderungstendenzen im entwicklungsgang tropischer Rostpilze ergebnisse der 1. kubanisch-deutschen Alexander-v.-Humbolt-gedächtnisexpedition 1967/68, nr. 28. Zentralblatt für Mikrobiologie. 141:195–201. doi: 10.1016/S0232-4393(86)80058-0.
   Google Scholar
• Scott L, Anderson HM, Anderson JM. 1997. Vegetation history. In: Cowling RM, Richardson DM, Pierce SM, editors. Vegetation of southern Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Shivas RG, Beasley DR, McTaggart AR. 2014. Online identification guides for Australian smut fungi (Ustilaginomycotina) and rust fungi (Pucciniales). IMA Fungus. 5:195–202. doi: 10.5598/imafungus.2014.05.02.03.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Souza ESC, Aime MC, Elias SG, Pinho DB, Miller RNG, Dianese JC. 2018. Crossopsorella, a new tropical genus of rust fungi. Phytotaxa. 375:189–202. doi: 10.11646/phytotaxa.375.3.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stamatakis A. 2006. RAxML-VI-HPC: maximum likelihood-based phylogenetic analyses with thousands of taxa and mixed models. Bioinformatics. 22:2688–2690. doi: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btl446.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sydow H. 1921. Die verwetung der verwandtschaftsverhältnisse und des gegenwärtigen entwicklungsganges zur umgrenzing der gattungen bei den Uredineen. Annales Mycologici. 19:161–175.
   Google Scholar
• Sydow H, Sydow P. 1909. Uredinaceae. Annales du Musee du Congo. Series 5. 3 fasc(1):10–13.
   Google Scholar
• Sydow H, Sydow P. 1918. Mykologische mitteilungen. Annales Mycologici. 16:240–248.
   Google Scholar
• Talhinhas P, Carvalho R, Figueira R, Ramos AP. 2019. An annonated checklist of rust fungi (Pucciniales) occurring in Portugal. Sydowia. 71:65–84. doi: 10.12905/0380.sydowia71-2019-0065.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor JW, Berbee ML. 2006. Dating divergences in the fungal tree of life: review and new analyses. Mycologia. 98:838–849. doi: 10.1080/15572536.2006.11832614.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Termorshuizen AJ, Swertz CA. 2011. Roesten van Nederland (Dutch rust fungi). privately published by A Termorshuizen; p. 1–420.
   Google Scholar
• Thirumalachar MJ. 1945. Development of spore-forms and the nuclear cycle in the autoecious opsis rust, Cystopsora olea. Botanical Gazette. 107:74–86. doi: 10.1086/335329.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thirumalachar MJ. 1946. Notes on three South African rusts. Bull Torrey Bot Club. 73:346–350. doi: 10.2307/2481544.
   Google Scholar
• Thirumalachar MJ, Kern FD, Patil BV. 1973. Hiratsukamyces, a new genus of the Pucciniastreae. Sydowia. 27:78–81.
   Google Scholar
• Thirumalachar MJ, Narasimhan MJ. 1950. Alternation of generations and heteroecism in Puccinia versicolor. Ann Bot. 14:341–345. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a083250.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas DC, Chatrou LW, Stull GW, Johnson DM, David JH, Thongpairoj DJ, Saunders RMK. 2015. The historical origins of palaeotropical intercontinental disjunctions in the pantropical flowering plant family Annonaceae. Perspect Plant Ecol Evol Syst. 17:1–16. doi: 10.1016/j.ppees.2014.11.0011433-8319.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thümen F von. 1876. Fungi Austro-Africani II. Flora. 59:362–364.
   Google Scholar
• Toome M, Aime MC. 2015. Reassessment of rust fungi on weeping willows in the Americas and description of Melampsora ferrinii sp.nov. Plant Pathol. 64:216–224. doi: 10.1111/ppa.12237.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Merwe R, Walker J, Ericson L, Burdon JJ. 2008. Coevolution with higher taxonomic host groups within the Puccinia/Uromyces rust lineage obscured by host jumps. Mycol Res. 112:1387–1408. doi: 10.1016/j.mycres.2008.06.027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Merwe R, Walker J, Ericson L, Thrall PH, Burdon JJ. 2007. Evolutionary relationships among species of Puccinia and Uromyces (Pucciniaceae, Uredinales) inferred from partial protein coding gene phylogenies. Mycol Res. 111:163–175. doi: 10.1016/j.mycres.2006.09.015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Wyk AE, Smith GF. 2001. Regions of floristic endemism in southern Africa. Hatfield: Umdaus Press.
   Google Scholar
• Vialle A, Feau N, Allaire M, Didukh M, Martin F, Moncalvo JM, Hamelin RC. 2009. Evaluation of mitochondrial genes as DNA barcode for Basidiomycota. Mol Ecol Resour. 9:99–113. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-0998.2009.02637.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vilgalys R, Hester M. 1990. Rapid genetic identification and mapping of enzymatically amplified ribosomal DNA from several Cryptococcus species. J Bacteriol. 172:4238–4246. doi: 10.1128/jb.172.8.4238-4246.1990.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visser B, Meyer M, Park RF, Gilligan CA, Burgin LE, Hort MC, Hodson DP, Pretorius ZA. 2019. Microsatellite analysis and urediniospore dispersal simulations support the movement of Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici from southern Africa to Australia. Phytopathology. 109(1):133–144. doi: 10.1094/PHYTO-04-18-0110-R.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wakefield EM, Hansford CG. 1949. Contributions towards the fungus flora of Uganda – IX. The uredinales of Uganda. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London, session 161 part 2. p. 162–198.
   Google Scholar
• Walker J, Shivas RG. 2004. Uredopeltis chevalieri sp. nov. the rust of Grewia (Tiliaceae) formerly known as Phakopsora (or Dasturella) grewiae, its first record in Australia and a summary of the known rusts of Grewia. Australas Plant Pathol. 33:41–47. doi: 10.1071/AP03081.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White F. 1983. The vegetation of Africa. Paris: UNESCO.
   Google Scholar
• White TJ, Bruns TD, Lee S, Taylor JW. 1990. Amplification and direct sequencing of fungal ribosomal RNA genes for phylogenetics. In: Innis MA, Gelfand DH, Sninsky JJ, White TJ, editors. PCR protocols: a guide to methods and applications. USA: Academic Press Inc. p. 315–322.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson M, Henderson DM. 1966. British rust fungi. Cambridge University Press; Cambridge.
   Google Scholar
• Wingfield BD, Ericson L, Szaro T, Burdon J. 2004. Phylogenetic patterns in the Uredinales. Australas Plant Pathol. 33(3):327–335. doi: 10.1071/AP04020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood AR. 2006. New and interesting records of South African rust fungi (Uredinales). S Afr J Bot. 72:534–543. doi: 10.1016/j.sajb.2006.02.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood AR. 2007. Rust fungi (Uredinales) on Grewia species (Tilliaceae) in South Africa, with Uredopeltis atrides comb. nov. the new name for Ravenelia atrides. Mycol Progr. 6(2):93–99. doi: 10.1007/s11557-007-0528-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood AR, Crous PW. 2005. Morphological and molecular characterization of Endophyllum species on perennial asteraceous plants in South Africa. Mycol Res. 109:387–400. doi: 10.1017/S0953756204002175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood AR, Lutz M, Bauer R, Oberwinkler F. 2014. Morphology and phylogenetics of Stomatisora, including Stomatisora psychotriicola sp. nov. Mycol Progr. 13(4):1097–1104. doi: 10.1007/s11557-014-0997-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar