The efficacy of wind pollination in a small understory shrub (Coprosma spathulata) in native forest of the Waikato region, New Zealand

References

• Ackerman , JD . 2000 . Abiotic pollen and pollination: ecological, functional, and evolutionary perspectives . Plant Systematics and Evolution , 222 : 167 – 185 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ågren , J , Elmqvist , T and Tunlid , A . 1986 . Pollination by deceit, floral sex-ratios and seed set in dioecious Rubus chamaemorus L . Oecologia , 70 : 332 – 338 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allan HH 1961 . Flora of New Zealand , Vol. 1 . Wellington : Government Printer . 1085 p.
   Google Scholar
• Allison , TD . 1990 . Pollen production and plant density affect pollination and seed production in Taxus canadensis . Ecology , 71 : 516 – 522 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , GJ , Bernardello , G , Stuessy , TF and Crawford , DJ . 2001 . Breeding system and pollination of selected plants endemic to Juan Fernandez Islands . American Journal of Botany , 88 : 220 – 233 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashman , T-L , Knight , TM , Steets , JA , Amarasekare , P , Burd , M , Campbell , DR , Dudash , RM , Johnston , MO , Mazer , SJ , Mitchell , RJ , Morgan , MT and Wilson , WG . 2004 . Pollen limitation of plant reproduction: ecological and evolutionary causes and consequences . Ecology , 85 : 2408 – 2421 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashman , TL and Schoen , DJ . 1994 . How long should flowers live? . Nature , 371 : 788 – 790 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker , HG . 1955 . Self-incompatibility and establishment after ‘long-distance’ dispersal . Evolution , 9 : 347 – 349 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beattie , AJ . 1971 . A technique for the study of insect-borne pollen . Pan-Pacific Entomologist , 47 : 82
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernardello , G , Anderson , GJ , Stuessy , TF and Crawford , DJ . 2001 . A survey of floral traits, breeding systems, floral visitors, and pollination systems of the angiosperms of the Juan Fernandez Islands (Chile) . Botanical Review , 67 : 255 – 308 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berry , EJ and Gorchov , DL . 2004 . Reproductive biology of the dioecious understorey palm Chamaedorea radicalis in a Mexican cloud forest: pollination vector, flowering phenology and female fecundity . Journal of Tropical Ecology , 20 : 369 – 376 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bessa-Gomes , C , Legendre , S and Clobert , J . 2004 . Allee effects, mating systems and the extinction risk in populations with two sexes . Ecology Letters , 7 : 802 – 812 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bierzychudek , P . 1981 . Pollinator limitation of plant reproductive effort . American Naturalist , 117 : 838 – 840 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calabrese , JM and Fagan , WF . 2004 . Lost in time, lonely, and single: reproductive asynchrony and the Allee effect . American Naturalist , 164 : 25 – 37 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlquist , S . 1966 . The biota of long-distance dispersal. IV. Genetic systems in the floras of oceanic islands . Evolution , 20 : 433 – 455 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charlesworth , D . 1993 . Why are unisexual flowers associated with wind pollination and unspecialized pollinators . American Naturalist , 141 : 481 – 490 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cruden , RW . 1977 . Pollen–ovule ratios: a conservative indicator of breeding systems in flowering plants . Evolution , 31 : 32 – 46 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cruden , RW . 2000 . Pollen grains: why so many? . Plant Systematics and Evolution , 222 : 143 – 165 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Culley , TM , Weller , SG and Sakai , AK . 2002 . The evolution of wind pollination in angiosperms . Trends in Ecology & Evolution , 17 : 361 – 369 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darwin C 1877 . The different forms of flowers on plants of the same species . London : Murray . 352 p.
   Google Scholar
• Davis , HG , Taylor , CM , Civille , JC and Strong , DR . 2004a . An Allee effect at the front of a plant invasion: Spartina in a Pacific estuary . Journal of Ecology , 92 : 321 – 327 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , HG , Taylor , CM , Lambrinos , JG and Strong , DR . 2004b . Pollen limitation causes an Allee effect in a wind-pollinated invasive grass (Spartina alterniflora) . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA , 101 : 13804 – 13807 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delph , LF . 1999 . “ Sexual dimorphism in life history ” . In Gender and sexual dimorphism in flowering plants , Edited by: Geber , MA , Dawson , TE and Delph , LF . 149 – 173 . Berlin : Springer .
   Google Scholar
• Dennis , B . 2002 . Allee effects in stochastic populations . Oikos , 96 : 389 – 401 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Department of Lands and Survey 1984 . Management plan for Hakarimata Scenic Reserve . Hamilton , , New Zealand : Department of Lands and Survey .
   Google Scholar
• Dupont , Y . 2002 . Evolution of apomixis as a strategy of colonization in the dioecious species Lindera glauca (Lauraceae) . Population Ecology , 44 : 293 – 297 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faegri , K and Van der Pijl , L . 1979 . The principles of pollination ecology , 244 Oxford : Pergamon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Friedman , J and Barrett , SCH . 2009 . Wind of change: new insights on the ecology and evolution of pollination and mating in wind-pollinated plants . Annals of Botany , 103 : 1515 – 1527 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner , R . 2002 . The genus Coprosma (Rubiaceae) in New Guinea . Candollea , 57 : 97 – 130 .
   Google Scholar
• Hackney , EE and McGraw , JB . 2001 . Experimental demonstration of an Allee effect in American ginseng . Conservation Biology , 15 : 129 – 136 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heenan , PB , Dawson , MI and Bicknell , RA . 2002 . Evidence for apomictic seed formation in Coprosma waima (Rubiaceae) . New Zealand Journal of Botany , 40 : 347 – 355 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heenan , PB , Molloy , BPJ , Bicknell , RA and Luo , C . 2003 . Levels of apomictic and amphimictic seed formation in a natural population of Coprosma robusta (Rubiaceae) in Riccarton Bush, Christchurch, New Zealand . New Zealand Journal of Botany , 41 : 287 – 291 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Honig , MA , Linder , HP and Bond , WJ . 1992 . Efficacy of wind pollination: pollen load size and natural microgametophyte populations in wind-pollinated Staberoha banksii (Restionaceae) . American Journal of Botany , 79 : 443 – 448 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly , D . 1994 . The evolutionary ecology of mast seeding . Trends in Ecology and Evolution , 9 : 465 – 470 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly , D , Hart , DE and Allen , RB . 2001 . Evaluating the wind pollination benefits of mast seeding . Ecology , 82 : 117 – 126 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly , D and Sork , VL . 2002 . Mast seeding in perennial plants: why, how, where? . Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics , 33 : 427 – 447 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knapp , EE , Goedde , MA and Rice , KJ . 2001 . Pollen-limited reproduction in blue oak: implications for wind pollination in fragmented populations . Oecologia , 128 : 48 – 55 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knight , TM , Steets , JA , Vamosi , JC , Mazer , SJ , Burd , M , Campbell , DR , Dudash , MR , Johnston , MO , Mitchell , RJ and Ashman , TL . 2005 . Pollen limitation of plant reproduction: pattern and process . Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics , 36 : 467 – 497 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenig , WD and Ashley , MV . 2003 . Is pollen limited? The answer is blowin’ in the wind . Trends in Ecology and Evolution , 18 : 157 – 159 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lloyd , DG and Webb , CJ . 1977 . Secondary sex characters in plants . Botanical Review , 43 : 177 – 216 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merrett MF 2006 . Breeding systems and reproduction of indigenous shrubs in fragmented ecosystems . Unpublished PhD thesis , Palmerston North , , New Zealand : Massey University . 232 p.
   Google Scholar
• Merrett , MF , Robertson , AW and Peterson , PG . 2007 . Pollination performance and vulnerability to pollination breakdown of sixteen native shrub species from New Zealand . New Zealand Journal of Botany , 45 : 579 – 591 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niklas , KJ . 1985a . The aerodynamics of wind pollination . Botanical Review , 51 : 328 – 386 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niklas , KJ . 1985b . Wind pollination – a study in controlled chaos . American Scientist , 73 : 462 – 470 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niklas , KJ and Buchmann , SL . 1985 . Aerodynamics of wind pollination in Simmondsia chinensis (Link) Schneider . American Journal of Botany , 72 : 530 – 539 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nilsson , SG and Wastljung , U . 1987 . Seed predation and cross-pollination in mast-seeding beech (Fagus sylvatica) patches . Ecology , 68 : 260 – 265 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parsons MJ , Douglass P , Macmillan BH 1998 . Current names list for wild gymnosperms, dicotyledons and monocotyledons (except grasses) in New Zealand as used in Herbarium CHR . Lincoln : Manaaki Whenua Press . 206 p.
   Google Scholar
• Poole AL , Adams NM 1994 . Trees and shrubs of New Zealand. , Rev. edn . Lincoln : Manaaki Whenua Press . 256 p.
   Google Scholar
• Primack , RB . 1985 . Longevity of individual flowers . Annual Review Ecology and Systematics , 16 : 15 – 37 .
   Google Scholar
• Proctor , M , Yeo , P and Lack , A . 1996 . The natural history of pollination , 479 Portland : Timber Press .
   Google Scholar
• Regal , PJ . 1982 . Pollination by wind and animals: ecology and geographic patterns . Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics , 13 : 497 – 524 .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , CC , Hamrick , JL and Kramer , CL . 1988 . The effects of stand density on frequency of filled seeds and fecundity in lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl.) . Canadian Journal of Forest Research , 18 : 453 – 460 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stehlik , I and Barrett , SCH . 2006 . Pollination intensity influences sex ratios in dioecious Rumex nivalis, a wind-pollinated plant . Evolution , 60 : 1207 – 1214 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stehlik , I , Friedman , J and Barrett , SCH . 2008 . Environmental influence on primary sex ratio in a dioecious plant . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA , 105 : 10847 – 10852 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens , PA , Sutherland , WJ and Freckleton , RP . 1999 . What is the Allee effect? . Oikos , 87 : 185 – 190 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steven , JC and Waller , DM . 2007 . Isolation affects reproductive success in low-density but not high-density populations of two wind-pollinated Thalictrum species . Plant Ecology , 190 : 131 – 141 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevenson , PR . 2007 . A test of the escape and colonization hypotheses for zoochorous tree species in a western Amazonian forest . Plant Ecology , 190 : 245 – 258 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor , CM , Davis , HG , Civille , JC , Grevstad , FS and Hastings , A . 2004 . Consequences of an Allee effect in the invasion of a Pacific estuary by Spartina alterniflora . Ecology , 85 : 3254 – 3266 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waikato Regional Council 2011 . Our climate . http://www.waikatoregion.govt.nz/environmental-information (accessed 7 July 2011) .
   Google Scholar
• Wardle , P . 1991 . Vegetation of New Zealand , 672 Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Webb , CJ , Lloyd , DG and Delph , LF . 1999 . Gender dimorphism in indigenous New Zealand seed plants . New Zealand Journal of Botany , 37 : 119 – 130 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb , CJ and Simpson , MJA . 2001 . Seeds of New Zealand gymnosperms and dicotyledons , 428 Christchurch : Manuka Press .
   Google Scholar
• Whitehead , D . 1969 . Wind pollination in the angiosperms: evolutionary and environmental considerations . Evolution , 23 : 28 – 35 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitehead , D . 1983 . “ Wind pollination: some ecological and evolutionary perspectives ” . In Pollination biology , Edited by: Real , L . 97 – 108 . Orlando : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar