Forest biomes of Southern Africa

References

• *This list of References contains also those cited in the supplemental data for this article.
   Google Scholar
• Adams JB, Rajkaran A. 2020. Changes in mangroves at their southernmost African distribution limit. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 247:106862. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2020.106862.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adie H, Kotze DJ, Lawes MJ. 2017. Small fire refugia in the grassy matrix and the persistence of Afrotemperate forest in the Drakensberg mountains. Scientific Reports. 7:6549. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-06747-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Adie H, Lawes MJ. 2009. Explaining conifer dominance in Afrotemperate forests: shade tolerance favours Podocarpus latifolius over angiosperm species. Forest Ecology and Management. 259:176–186.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen TFH, Starr TB. 1982. Hierarchy: perspectives for ecological complexity. Chicago (US): University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Aubréville A. 1949. Contribution à la paléohistoire des forêts de l'Afrique tropical. Paris (FR): Société d'éditions géographiques, maritimes et colonials.
   Google Scholar
• *Barbosa FMA, Cuambe CC, Bandeira SO. 2001. Status and distribution of mangroves in Mozambique. South African Journal of Botany. 67:393–398.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck H, Wood EF, McVicar T, Zambrano-Bigiarini M, Alvarez-Garreton C, Baez-Villanueva O, Sheffield J, Karger DN. 2020. Bias correction of global high-resolution precipitation climatologies using streamflow observations from 9372 catchments. Journal of Climate. 33:1299–1315. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-19–0332.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Bester SP. 1998. Vegetation and flora of the Southern Drakensberg Escarpment and adjacent areas [MSc Thesis]. Pretoria (ZA): University of Pretoria.
   Google Scholar
• *Bezuidenhout H. 1996. The major vegetation communities of the Augrabies Falls National Park, Northern Cape. 1. Southern section. Koedoe. 39(2):7–24.
   Google Scholar
• *Bezuidenhout H, Jardine CL. 2001. A reconnaissance botanical survey of the lower orange River (Blouputs to Onseepkans) in the Northern Cape, South Africa. Koedoe. 44(1):1–8.
   Google Scholar
• Blackie R, Baldauf C, Gautier D, Gumbo D, Kassa H, Parthasarathy N, Paumgarten F, Sola P, Pulla S, Waeber P, et al. 2014. Tropical dry forests: The state of global knowledge and recommendations for future research. Boor Barat (IN): Center for International Forestry Research.
   Google Scholar
• Blasco F, Whitmore TC, Gers C. 2000. A framework for the worldwide comparison of tropical woody vegetation types. Biological Conservation. 95:175–189.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bond WJ. 2019. Open ecosystems. Ecology and evolution beyond the forest edge. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Breckle S-W. 2002. Walter’s vegetation of the earth, 4th ed. Berlin (DE): Springer-Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Breckle S-W, Rafiqpoor MD. 2019. Vegetation und Klima. Berlin (DE): Springer Spektrum.
   Google Scholar
• *Bredenkamp GJ, Bezuidenhout H, Joubert H, Naude C. 1994. The vegetation of the Boskop Dam Nature Reserve, Potchefstroom. Koedoe. 37(1):19–33.
   Google Scholar
• *Bredenkamp GJ, Deutschlander MS. 1995. New azonal syntaxa from the hills and river banks of the Manyeleti Game Reserve, Northern Transvaal Province, South Africa. Koedoe. 38(10):41–58.
   Google Scholar
• Broderick TJ. 1984. A geological interpretation across a portion of the mid-Zambezi Valley lying between the Mkanga and Hunyani rivers, Guruve district. Annals of the Zimbabwe Geological Survey. 9:59–79.
   Google Scholar
• Broderick TJ. 1990. An interpretation of the geology of the Cabora Bassa Basin, mid-Zambezi Valley. Annals of the Zimbabwe Geological Survey. 1:1–11.
   Google Scholar
• Bullock SH, Mooney HA, Medina E. 1995. Seasonally dry tropical forests. New York (NY): Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bunyavejchewin S. 1999. Structure and dynamics in seasonal dry evergreen forest in northeastern Thailand. Journal of Vegetation Science. 10:787–792.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgess ND, Clarke GP. 2000. The coastal forests of Eastern Africa. Cambridge (UK): IUCN.
   Google Scholar
• *Burrows JE, Burrows SM, Lötter MC, Schmidt E. 2018. Trees and shrubs Mozambique. Noordhoek, Cape Town (ZA): Publishing Print Matters.
   Google Scholar
• Cardoso da Silva JM, Leal IR, Tabarelli M. 2017. Caatinga. The largest tropical dry forest region in South America. Cham (HE): Springer International Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Chaloner WG, Creber GT. 1990. Do fossil plants give a climatic signal? Journal of the Geological Society. 147:343–350.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Chevallier R. 2013. Balancing development and coastal conservation: mangroves in Mozambique. Pretoria (ZA): SAIIA.
   Google Scholar
• Chidumayo EN, Marunda C. 2010. Dry forests and woodlands in Sub-Saharan Africa: context and challenges. In: Chidumayo EN, Gumbo DJ, editors. The dry forests and woodlands of Africa: managing for products and services. London (UK): Earthscan; p. 1–9.
   Google Scholar
• Chidumayo E, Okali D, Kowero G, Larwanou M. 2011. Climate change and African forest and wildlife resources. Nairobi (KN): African Forest Forum.
   Google Scholar
• *Coetsee C, Wigley BJ. 2013. Virgilia divaricata may facilitate forest expansion in the afrotemperate forests of the southern Cape, South Africa. Koedoe. 55(1): Art. #1128. doi:10.4102/koedoe.v55i1.1128.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Coetzee BJ. 1974. A phytosociological classification of the vegetation of the Jack Scott nature reserve. Bothalia. 11:329–347.
   Google Scholar
• Coetzee JA. 1980. Tertiary environmental changes along the south-western African coast. Palaeontologia Africana. 23:197–203.
   Google Scholar
• *Conrad V. 1946. Methods in climatology. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dayaram A, Harris LR, Grobler BA, van der Merwe S, Rebelo AG., Ward Powrie L, Vlok JHJ, Desmet PG, Qabaqaba M, Hlahane KM, et al. 2019. Vegetation Map of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland 2018: A description of changes since 2006. Bothalia. 49:a2452. doi:10.4102/abc.v49i1.2452.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Cauwer V, Geldenhuys CJ, Aerts R, Kabajani M, Muys B. 2016. Patterns of forest composition and their long term environmental drivers in the tropical dry forest transition zone of Southern Africa. Forest Ecosystems. 3:Art.#23.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Dee DP, Uppala SM, Simmons AJ, Berrisford P, Poli P, Kobayashi S, Andrae U, Balmaseda MA, Balsamo G, Bauer DP, et al. 2011. The ERA-interim reanalysis: configuration and performance of the data assimilation system. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 137:553–597.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *De Frey WH. 1999. Phytosociology of the Mpumalanga high altitude grasslands [MSc thesis]. Pretoria (ZA): University of Pretoria.
   Google Scholar
• de Sousa LM, Poggio L, Batjes NH, Heuvelink GBM, Kempen B, Riberio E, Rossiter D. 2020. Soilgrids 2.0: producing quality-assessed soil information for the globe. SOIL Discuss. doi:10.5194/soil-2020-65.
   Google Scholar
• Dexter KG, Pennington RT, Oliveira-Filho AT, Bueno ML, de Miranda PL S, Neves DM. 2018. Inserting tropical dry forests into discussions on biome transitions in the tropics. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 6:104. doi:10.3389/fevo.2018.00104.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Dingaan MNV, Du Preez PJ. 2017. Floristic composition and species diversity of urban vegetation in Bloemfontein, free state, South Africa. Bothalia. 47(1):a2244. doi:10.4102/abc.v47i1.2244.
   Google Scholar
• *Downs CT, Symes CT. 2004. Snag dynamics and forest structure in Afromontane forests in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: implications for the conservation of cavity-nesting avifauna. South African Journal of Botany. 70:265–276.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eeley HAC, Lawes MJ, Piper SEP. 1999. The influence of climate change on the distribution of indigenous forest in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Journal of Biogeography. 26:595–617.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FAO. 2001. FRA 2000: Global ecological zoning for the global forest resources assessment 2000: final report. Rome (IT): FAO. http://www.fao.org/ docrep/006/ad652e/ad652e00.HTM.
   Google Scholar
• Farr TG, Rosen PA, Caro E, Crippen R, Duren R, Hensley S, Kobrick M, Paller M, Rodriguez E, Roth L, et al. 2007. The shuttle radar topography mission. Reviews of Geophysics. 45:1–33.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feakins SJ, DeMenocal PB. 2010. Global and African regional climate during the Cenozoic. In: Werdelin L, Sanders J, editors. Cenozoic mammals of Africa. Berkeley (CA): University of California Press; p. 45–55.
   Google Scholar
• Ferreira NA, Bigalke RC. 1987. Food selection by grey rhebuck in the orange free state. South African Journal of Wildlife Research. 17:123–127.
   Google Scholar
• *FNDS [Fundo Nacional de Desenvolvimento Sustentável]. 2019. Relatório do Mapa de Cobertura Florestal de Moçambique 2016. Maputo: FNDS (MZ).
   Google Scholar
• Fourie C. 2011. One class object based system for sparse geographic feature identification [MSc thesis]. Stellenbosch (ZA): Stellenbosch University.
   Google Scholar
• *Funk C, Peterson P, Landsfeld M, Pedreros D, Verdin J, Shukla S, Husak G, Rowland J, Harrison L, Hoell A, et al. 2015. The climate hazards infrared precipitation with stations—a new environmental record for monitoring extremes. Scientific Data. 2:150066. doi:10.1038/sdata.2015.66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Gardiner M, Matros-Goreses A, Roberts C, Seely M. 2006. Site characterisation for Kuiseb riparian ecosystems. Windhoek (NA): Desert Research Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Gentry AH. 1995. Diversity and floristic composition of neotropical dry forests. In: Bullock SH, Mooney HA, Medina E, editors. Seasonally dry tropical forests. New York (NY): Cambridge University Press; p. 146–194.
   Google Scholar
• Goudie AS. 1996. Climate: past and present. In: Adam WM, Goudie AS, Orme AR, editors. The physical geography of Africa. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press; p. 34–59.
   Google Scholar
• Graham A. 1999. Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic history of North American vegetation. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Graham A, Dilcher D. 1995. The Cenozoic record of tropical dry forest in northern Latin America and the southern United States. In: Bullock SH, Mooney HA, Medina E, editors. Seasonally dry tropical forests. New York (NY): Cambridge University Press; p. 124–145.
   Google Scholar
• *Grobler LER. 2009. A phytosociological study of peat swamp forests in the Kosi Bay lake system, Maputaland, South Africa [MSc thesis]. Pretoria (ZA): University of Pretoria.
   Google Scholar
• Hall JB, Swaine MD. 1981. Distribution and ecology of vascular plants in a tropical rain forest. The Hague (NL): Dr W. Junk Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Hamilton AC, Perrott RA. 1981. A study of altitudinal zonation in the montane forest belt of Mt. Elgon, Kenya/Uganda. Vegetatio. 45:107–125.
   Google Scholar
• *Harris I, Jones PD, Osborn TJ, Lister DH. 2014. Updated high-resolution grids of monthly climatic observations—the CRU TS3.10 dataset. (2014). International Journal of Climatology. 34:623–642.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedberg O. 1951. Vegetation belts of the East African mountains. Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift. 45:140–202.
   Google Scholar
• Hengl T, Mendes de Jesus J, Heuvelink GB, Ruiperez Gonzalez M, Kilibarda M, Blagotić A, Shangguan W, Wright MN, Geng X, Bauer-Marschallinger B, et al. 2017. Soilgrids250m: global gridded soil information based on machine learning. PLoS ONE. 12(2):e0169748.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hijmans RJ. 2020. raster: geographic data analysis and modeling. R Package Version 3.4-2. https://rspatial.org/raster
   Google Scholar
• Hoare DB, Mucina L, Rutherford MC, Vlok JHJ, Euston-Brown DIW, Palmer AR, Powrie LW, Lechmere-Oertel RG, Procheş ŞM, Dold AP, et al. 2006. Albany Thicket biome. In: Mucina L, Rutherford MC, editors. The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Pretoria (ZA): SANBI; p. 540–567.
   Google Scholar
• Hoare RE, Robertson EF, Dunham KM. 2002. Structure and condition of Zambezi Valley dry forests and thickets. Harare (ZW): The Zambezi Society.
   Google Scholar
• *Hoffman MT, Rohde RF. 2011. Rivers through time: Historical changes in the riparian vegetation of the semi-arid winter-rainfall region of South Africa in response to climate and land use. Journal of the History of Biology. 44:59–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs BF. 2004. Paleobotanical studies from tropical Africa: relevance to the evolution of forest, woodland and savannah biomes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 359:1573–1583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Jacobson PJ, Jacobson KM, Seely MK. 1995. Ephemeral rivers and their catchments, 1st ed.. Windhoek (NA): Desert Research Foundation of Namibia.
   Google Scholar
• Jaramillo C, Rueda MJ, Mora G. 2006. Cenozoic plant diversity in the Neotropics. Science. 311:1893–1896.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jouquet P, Traoré S, Choosai C, Hartmann C, Bignell D. 2011. Influence of termites on ecosystem functioning. ecosystem services provided by termites. European Journal of Soil Biology. 47:215–222.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karger DN, Conrad O, Böhner J, Kawohl T, Kreft H, Soria-Auza RW, Zimmermann NE, Linder HP, Kessler M. 2017a. Climatologies at high resolution for the Earth land surface areas. Scientific Data. 4:170122. doi:10.1038/sdata.2017.122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karger DN, Conrad O, Böhner J, Kawohl T, Kreft H, Soria-Auza RW, Zimmermann NE, Linder HP, Kessler M. 2017b. Data from: Climatologies at high resolution for the earth's land surface areas. Dryad Digital Repository. doi:10.061/dryad.kd1d4
   Google Scholar
• Karger DN, Schmatz D, Dettling D, Zimmermann NE. 2020. High resolution monthly precipitation and temperature timeseries for the period 2006-2100. Scientific Data. 7:248. doi:10.1038/s41597-020-00587-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kassambara A, Mundt F. 2020. Factoextra: extract and visualize the results of multivariate data analyses. R Package Version 1.0.7. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=factoextra
   Google Scholar
• Keith DA, Ferrer-Paris JR, Nicholson E, Kingsford RT. 2020. IUCN global ecosystem typology 2.0 descriptive profiles for biomes and ecosystem functional groups. Gland (CH): IUCN.
   Google Scholar
• Lawes MJ, Eeley HAC, Findlay NJ, Forbes D. 2007a. Resilient forest faunal communities in South Africa: a legacy of palaeoclimatic change and extinction filtering? Journal of Biogeography. 34:1246–1264.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Lawes MJ, Griffiths ME, Boudreau S. 2007b. Colonial logging and recent subsistence harvesting affect the composition and physiognomy of a podocarp dominated Afrotemperate forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 247:48–60.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehmann CE, Archibald SA, Hoffmann WA, Bond WJ. 2011. Deciphering the distribution of the savanna biome. New Phytologist. 191:197–209. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03689.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lock JM. 2006. The seasonally dry vegetation of Africa: parallels and comparisons with the neotropics. In: Pennington RT, Lewis GP, Ratter JA, editors. Neotropical savannas and seasonally dry forests. Plant diversity, biogeography, and conservation. Boca Raton (FL): Taylor & Francis; p. 449–467.
   Google Scholar
• Loffler L, Loffler P. 2005. Swaziland tree Atlas—including selected shrubs and climbers. Southern African botanical diversity network report No. 38. Pretoria (ZA): SABONET.
   Google Scholar
• Lötter MC. 2014. Indigenous forests of Mpumalanga Province (South Africa); patterns and processes form inclusion in a systematic conservation plan [PhD Thesis]. Johannesburg (ZA): University of Witwatersrand.
   Google Scholar
• Lötter M, Burrows J, McCleland W, Stalmans M, Schmidt E, Soares M, Grantham H, Jones K, Duarte E, Matimele H, Costa HM. 2021. Historical vegetation map and red list of ecosystems assessment for Mozambique – version 1.0 – final report. Maputo (MZ): USAID / SPEED+.
   Google Scholar
• Lötter MC, Mucina L, Witkowski ETF. 2014. Classification of the indigenous forests of Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. South African Journal of Botany. 90:37–51.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macintyre PD, Mucina L. 2021. Biomes of Western Australia. New Zealand Journal of Botany. doi:10.1080/0028825X.2021.1890154.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Malan PW. 1997. Vegetation ecology of the southern free state [PhD thesis]. Bloemfontein (ZA): University of the Orange Free State.
   Google Scholar
• Maley J. 1983. Histoire de la végétation et du climat de l’Afrique nord-tropicale au Quaternaire recent. Bothalia. 14:377–389.
   Google Scholar
• Maley J. 1987. Fragmentation de la forêt dense humide africaine et extension des biotopes montagnards au Quaternaire récent: nouvelles données polliniques et chronologiques. Implications paleoclimatiques et biogéographiques. Palaeontologia africana. 18:307–333.
   Google Scholar
• Maley J. 1991. The African rain forest vegetation and palaeoenvironments during late quaternary. Climatic Change. 19:79–98.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maley J. 1996. The African rainforest: main characteristics of changes in vegetation and climate from the upper-cretaceous to the quaternary. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Section B. 104:31–73.
   Google Scholar
• Mani S, Parthasarathy N. 2006. Tree diversity and stand structure in inland and coastal tropical dry evergreen forests of peninsular India. Current Science. 90:1238–1246.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mapaure I. 2012. Determinants of vegetation composition and diversity of a moist forest-savanna boundary in south-eastern Zimbabwe. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation. 4:584–591.
   Google Scholar
• Marsh GA, Fairbridge RW. 1999. Lentic and lotic ecosystems. In: Environmental geology. Encyclopedia of Earth science. Dordrecht (NL): Springer. doi:10.1007/1-4020-4494-1_20.
   Google Scholar
• Matthews WS. 2007. Contributions to the ecology of Maputaland, Southern Africa, with emphasis on sand forest [PhD Thesis]. Pretoria (ZA): University of Pretoria.
   Google Scholar
• Matthews WS, Van Wyk AE, Van Rooyen N, Botha GA. 2001. Vegetation of the Tembe elephant park, Maputaland, South Africa. South African Journal of Botany. 67:573–594.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meek CS, Richardson DM, Mucina L. 2010. A river runs through it: land-use and the composition of vegetation along a riparian corridor in the Cape floristic region, South Africa. Biological Conservation. 143:156–164.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meek CS, Richardson DM, Mucina L. 2013. Plant communities along the Eerste river, Western Cape, South Africa: community descriptions and implications for restoration. Koedoe. 55(1):Art. #1099. doi:10.4102/koedoe.v55i1.1099
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menaut JC, Lepage M, Abbadie L. 1995. Savannas, woodlands and dry forests in Africa. In: Bullock SH, Mooney HA, Medina E, editors. Seasonally dry tropical forests. New York (NY): Cambridge University Press; p. 64–92.
   Google Scholar
• *Mendelsohn J, Jarvis A, Roberts C, Robertson T. 2002. Atlas of Namibia, 1st edition. Cape Town (ZA): New Africa Books.
   Google Scholar
• *Mensah S, Egeru A, Assogbadjo AE, Kakaï RG. 2020. Vegetation structure, dominance patterns and height growth in an Afromontane forest. The Journal for Research in Southern Africa. 31:453–462.
   Google Scholar
• Microsoft, R Core Team. 2018. Microsoft open R. Remond (WA): Microsoft. https://mran.microsoft.com/.
   Google Scholar
• Miller CS, Gosling WD. 2014. Quaternary forest associations in lowland tropical West Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews. 8:7e25.
   Google Scholar
• Moll EJ, White F. 1978. The Indian Ocean Coastal belt. In: Werger MJA, Van Bruggen AC, editors. Biogeography and ecology of Southern Africa. The Hague (NL): Dr W. Junk; p. 561–598.
   Google Scholar
• Moravec J. 1998. Reconstructed natural versus potential natural vegetation in vegetation mapping: a discussion of concepts. Applied Vegetation Science. 1:173–176.
   Google Scholar
• *Mostert THC, Bredenkamp GJ, Klopper HL, Verwey C. 2009. Major vegetation types of the Soutpansberg conservancy and the Blouberg nature reserve, South Africa. Koedoe. 50(1):32–48.
   Google Scholar
• Mucina et al. 2021a. Zonal biomes of Southern Africa. New Zealand Journal of Botany. (in prep.)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mucina et al. 2021b. Azonal biomes of Southern Africa. New Zealand Journal of Botany. (in prep.)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mucina L. 2010. Floristic-phytosociological approach, potential natural vegetation, and survival of prejudice. Lazaroa. 31:173–182.
   Google Scholar
• Mucina L. 2018. Vegetation survey and classification of subtropical forests of Southern Africa. Dordrecht (NL): Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Mucina L. 2019. Biome: evolution of a crucial ecological and biogeographical concept. New Phytologist. 222:97–114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mucina L. 2021. Biomes of the Southern Hemisphere in global perspective. New Zealand Journal of Botany. (in prep.)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mucina L, Abbott A, Tichý L. 2018. Classification of Pondoland scarp forests. In: Mucina L, editor. Vegetation survey and classification of subtropical forests of Southern Africa. Dordrecht (NL): Springer; p. 91–124.
   Google Scholar
• Mucina L, Adams JB, Knevel IC, Rutherford MC, Powrie LW, Bolton JJ, van der Merwe JHJ, Anderson RJ, Bornman TG, le Roux A, et al. 2006d. Coastal vegetation of South Africa. In: Mucina L, Rutherford MC, editors. The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Pretoria (ZA): SANBI; p. 658–697.
   Google Scholar
• Mucina L, Geldenhuys CJ, Rutherford MC, Powrie LW, Lötter MC, von Maltitz GP, Euston-Brown DI, Matthews WS, Dobson L, McKenzie B. 2006b. Afrotemperate, subtropical and azonal forests. In: Mucina L, Rutherford MC, editors. The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Pretoria (ZA): SANBI; p. 584–615.
   Google Scholar
• Mucina L, Hoare DB, Lötter MC, du Preez PJ, Rutherford MC, Scott-Shaw CR, Bredenkamp GJ, Powrie LW, Scott L, Camp KGT, et al. 2006f. Grassland biome. In: Mucina L, Rutherford MC, editors. The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Pretoria (ZA): SANBI; p. 348–437.
   Google Scholar
• Mucina L, Rutherford MC. 2006. The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Pretoria (ZA): SANBI.
   Google Scholar
• Mucina L, Rutherford MC, Powrie LW. 2006a. Logic of the map: approaches and procedures. In: Mucina L, Rutherford MC, editors. The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Pretoria (ZA): SANBI; p. 12–29.
   Google Scholar
• *Mucina L, Rutherford MC, Powrie LW, Gerber J, Bezuidenhout H, Sieben EJJ, Cilliers SS, du Preez PJ, Manning JC, Hoare DB, et al. 2006c. Inland azonal vegetation. In: Mucina L, Rutherford MC, editors. The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Pretoria (ZA): SANBI; p. 616–657.
   Google Scholar
• Mucina L, Scott-Shaw CR, Rutherford MC, Camp KGT, Matthews WS, Powrie LW, Hoare DB. 2006e. Indian Ocean Coastal belt. In: Mucina L, Rutherford MC, editors. The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Pretoria (ZA): SANBI; p. 568–583.
   Google Scholar
• Mujuru L, Kundhlande A. 2007. Small-scale vegetation structure and composition of Chirinda Forest, southeast Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology. 45:624–632.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Müller T. 1999. The distribution, classification and conservation of rainforests in Zimbabwe. In: Timberlake J, Katiwu S, editors. African plants: biodiversity, taxonomy and uses. Kew (UK): Royal Botanical Gardens; p. 221–235.
   Google Scholar
• Müller T. 2006. The distribution, classification and conservation of rainforests in eastern Zimbabwe. Occasional Publications in Biodiversity No. 19. Bulawayo (ZW): Biodiversity Foundation for Africa.
   Google Scholar
• Müller T, Mapaure A, Wursten B, Chapano C, Ballings P, Wild R. 2012. Vegetation survey of mount Gorongosa. Occasional Publications in Biodiversity No. 23. Bulawayo (ZW): Biodiversity Foundation for Africa.
   Google Scholar
• Müller T, Sitoe A, Mbunda R. 2005. Assessment of the forest reserve network in Mozambique. Maputo (MZ): WWF Mozambique.
   Google Scholar
• Murphy PG, Lugo AE. 1986. Ecology of tropical dry forest. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 17:67–88.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nardini A, Petruzzellis F, Marusig D, Tomasella M, Natale S, Altobelli A, Calligaris C, Floriddia G, Cucchi F, et al. 2021. Water ‘on the rocks’: a summer drink for thirsty trees? New Phytologist. 229:199–212.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neumann F, Scott L, Bousman CB, Van As L. 2010. A Holocene pollen sequence and vegetation changes at lake Eteza, KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa). Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 162:39–53.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noy-Meir I. 1973. Desert ecosystems: environment and producers. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 4:25–51.
   Google Scholar
• O’Connor TG. 2001. Effect of small catchment dams on downstream vegetation of a seasonal river in semi-arid African savanna. Journal of Ecology. 38:1314–1325.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohsawa M. 1985. The montane cloud forests and gradational changes in Southeast Asia. In: Hamilton LS, Juvik JO, Scatena, editors. Tropical montane cloud forests. New York (US): Springer-Verlag; p. 254–265.
   Google Scholar
• Ohsawa M. 1993. Latitudinal pattern of mountain vegetation zonation in southern and Eastern Asia. Journal of Vegetation Science. 4:13–18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olson DM, Dinerstein E, Wikramanayake ED, Burgess ND, Powell GV, Underwood EC, D’Amico JA, Itoua I, Strand HE, Morrison JC, et al. 2001. Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on earth. A new global map of terrestrial ecoregions provides an innovative tool for conserving biodiversity. BioScience. 51(11):933–938.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parthasarathy N, Selwyn MA, Udayakumar M. 2008. Tropical dry evergreen forests of peninsular India: ecology and conservation significance. Tropical Conservation Science. 1:89–110.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Patrick MJ, Ellery WN. 2006. Plant community and landscape patterns of a floodplain wetland in Maputaland. Northern KwaZulu-Natal. South Africa. African Journal of Ecology. 45:175–183.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pebesma E. 2018. Simple features for R: standardized support for spatial vector data. The R Journal. 10(1):439–446. doi:10.32614/RJ-2018-009.
   Google Scholar
• *Pedro JG, Barbosa LAG. 1955. A vegetação. In: Esboco do reconhecimento ecologico-agricola de Mocambique. 2:67–224. Centro de Investigacao Cientifica Algodeira Memorias e Trabalhos No. 23. Lourenco Marques [Maputo] (MZ): Centro de Investigacao Cientifica Algodeira.
   Google Scholar
• Pennington RT, Lavin M, Oliveira-Filho A. 2009. Woody plant diversity, evolution, and ecology in the tropics: perspectives from seasonally dry tropical forests. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 40:437–457.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pennington RT, Lavin M, Prado DE, Pendry CA, Pell SK, Butterworth CA. 2004. Historical climate change and speciation: neotropical seasonally dry forest plants show patterns of both Tertiary and Quaternary diversification. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 359:515–538.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pennington RT, Prado DA, Pendry C. 2000. Neotropical seasonally dry forests and Pleistocene vegetation changes. Journal of Biogeography. 27:261–273.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pennington RT, Ratter JA. 2006. Neotropical savannas and seasonally dry forests: Plant diversity, biogeography, and conservation. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Phillipson PB, Russell S. 1988. Phytogeography of the Alexandria Forest (southeastern Cape province). Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden. 25:661–670.
   Google Scholar
• Pickford M, Senut B, Mocke H, Mourer-Chauviré C, Rage J-C, Mein P. 2014. Eocene aridity in southwestern Africa: timing of onset and biological consequences. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa. 69:139–144. doi:10.1080/0035919X.2014.933452.
   Google Scholar
• Plana V. 2004. Mechanisms and tempo of evolution in the African Guineo–Congolian rainforest. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 359:1585–1594.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pound MJ, Salzmann U. 2017. Heterogeneity in global vegetation and terrestrial climate change during the late Eocene to early Oligocene transition. Scientific Reports. 7:43386. doi:10.1038/srep43386.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ratnam J, Bond WJ, Fensham RJ, Hoffmann WA, Archibald S, Lehmann CER, Anderson MT, Higgins SI, Sankaran M. 2011. When is a ‘forest’ a savanna, and why does it matter? Global Ecology and Biogeography. 20:653–660.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *R Core Team. 2020. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. URL https://www.r-project.org.
   Google Scholar
• *Robinson ER. 1976. Phytosociology of the Namib Desert park, South West Africa [PhD thesis]. Pietermaritzburg (ZA): University of Natal.
   Google Scholar
• Rossatto DR, Carvalho FA, Haridasan M. 2015. Soil and leaf nutrient content of tree species support deciduous forests on limestone outcrops as a eutrophic ecosystem. Acta Botanica Brasilica. 29:231–238.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutherford MC, Mucina L, Lötter MC, Bredenkamp GJ, Smit JHL, Scott-Shaw CR, Hoare DB, Goodman PS, Bezuidenhout H, Scott L, et al. 2006. Savanna biome. In: Mucina L, Rutherford MC, editors. The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Pretoria (ZA): SANBI; p. 438–539.
   Google Scholar
• SADC, IUCN, SARDC. 2000. Biodiversity of indigenous forests and woodlands in Southern Africa. Maseru (LT): Southern African Development Community.
   Google Scholar
• Salzmann U, Haywood AM, Lunt DJ, Valdes PJ, Hill DJ. 2008. A new global biome reconstruction and data-model comparison for the Middle Pliocene. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 17:432–447.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sampaio EVSB. 1995. Overview of the Brazilian Caatinga. In: Mooney HA, Bullock SH, Medina E, editors. Dry tropical forest. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press; p. 35–63.
   Google Scholar
• *SANBI [South African National Biodiversity Institute]. 2020. National Vegetation Map. https://www.sanbi.org/biodiversity/foundations/national-vegetation-map/.
   Google Scholar
• Särkinen T, Iganci JRV, Linares-Palomino R, Simon MF, Prado DE. 2011. Forgotten forests – issues and prospects in biome mapping using seasonally Dry tropical forests as a case study. BMC Ecology. 11:27. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6785/11/27.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schimper AFW. 1898. Pflanzengeographie auf physiologischer Grundlage. Jena (DE): Gustav Fischer Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Schmitt CB, Belokurov A, Besançon C, Boisrobert L, Burgess ND, Campbell A, Coad L, Fish L, Gliddon D, Humphries K, et al. 2009. Global ecological forest classification and forest protected area Gap analysis. analyses and recommendations in view of the 10% target for forest protection under the convention on biological diversity (CBD), 2nd rev. ed. Freiburg im Breisgau (DE): Freiburg University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Schrire BD, Lewis GP, Lavin M. 2005. Biogeography of the Leguminosae. In: Lewis G, Schrire B, Mackinder B, Lock M, editors. Legumes of the world. Kew (UK): Royal Botanic Gardens; p. 21–54.
   Google Scholar
• *Scott-Shaw B, Everson CS. 2019. Water-use dynamics of an alien-invaded riparian forest within the summer rainfall zone of South Africa. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 23:1553–1565.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shackleton CM, Cawe SG, Geldenhuys CJ. 1999. Review of the definitions and classifications of South African indigenous forests and woodlands. Report ENV-P-C 99007. Pretoria (ZA): CSIR.
   Google Scholar
• *Shapiro A. 2018. Mozambique mangrove mapping via satellite from 1994–present. Berlin (DE): WWF Germany. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.18470.55367.
   Google Scholar
• Shaw PA, Thomas DSG. 1996. The Quaternary palaeoenvironmental history of the Kalahari, Southern Africa. Journal of Arid Environments. 32:9–22.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sieben EJJ. 2000. The riparian vegetation of the Hottentots Holland mountains, SW cape [PhD thesis]. Stellenbosch (ZA): University of Stellenbosch.
   Google Scholar
• *Sieben EJJ, Reinecke MK. 2008. Description of reference conditions for restoration projects of riparian vegetation from the species-rich fynbos biome. South African Journal of Botany. 74:401–411.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva LCR, Hoffmann WA, Rossatto DR, Haridasan M, Franco AC, Horwath WR. 2013. Can savannas become forests? A coupled analysis of nutrient stocks and fire thresholds in central Brazil. Plant Soil. 373:829–842.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skowno AL, Poole CJ, Raimondo DC, Sink KJ, van Deventer H, van Niekerk L, Harris LR, Smith-Adao LB, Tolley KA, Zengeya TA, et al. 2019. National Biodiversity Assessment 2018: The status of South Africa’s ecosystems and biodiversity. Synthesis report. Pretoria (ZA): SANBI.
   Google Scholar
• Staal A. 2018. Resilience of tropical forest and savanna: bridging theory and observation [PhD thesis]. Wageningen (NL): Wageningen University. doi:10.18174/443580.
   Google Scholar
• *Stalmans M, Beilfuss R. 2008. Landscapes of the Gorongosa National Park. Condensed Version. Report, Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique.
   Google Scholar
• Stalmans M, Gertenbach WPD, Carvalho-Serfontein F. 2004. Plant communities and landscapes of the Parque Nacional do Limpopo, Moçambique. Koedoe. 47(2):61–81.
   Google Scholar
• Strohbach BJ. 2001. Vegetation survey of Namibia. Journal of Namibia Scientific Society. 49:93–124.
   Google Scholar
• *Swanepoel W, De Cauwer V, van Wyk AE. 2021. A new rheophytic species of Syzygium (Myrtaceae) from the Kunene River of Angola and Namibia. Phytotaxa. 491:281–290.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Theron GK, van Rooyen N, van Rooyen MW. 1980. Vegetation of the lower Kuiseb river. Madoqua. 11:327–345.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas DSG, Shaw PA. 1991. The Kalahari environment. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas DSG, Shaw PA. 1993. The evolution and characteristics of the Kalahari, Southern Africa. Journal of Arid Environments. 25:97–108.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Timberlake J. 1996. Sites of interest for botanical conservation in the communal lands of the Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe. Phase I. Occasional Publications in Biodiversity No. 2. Bulawayo (ZW): Biodiversity Foundation for Africa.
   Google Scholar
• Timberlake JR. 1993. Chirinda forest: conservation of a rain forest. In: Piearce GD, Gumbo DJ, editors. The ecology and management of indigenous forests in Southern Africa. Harare (ZW): Zimbabwe Forestry Commission and SAREC; p. 249–261.
   Google Scholar
• Timberlake J, Bayliss J, Alves T, Baena S, Francisco J, Harris T, da Sousa C. 2007. The biodiversity and conservation of mount Chiperone, Mozambique. Kew (UK): Royal Botanical Gardens.
   Google Scholar
• Timberlake J, Drummond RB, Maroyi A. 1988. Biodiversity assessment of the Lower Guruve region, Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe. Occasional Publications in Biodiversity No. 4. Bulawayo (ZW): Biodiversity Foundation for Africa.
   Google Scholar
• Timberlake J, Goyder D, Crawford F, Burrows J, Clarke GP, Luke Q, Matimele H, Müller T, Pascal O, de Sousa C, Alves T. 2011. Coastal dry forests in northern Mozambique. Plant Ecology and Evolution. 144:126–137.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Timberlake JR, Nobanda N, Mapaure I. 1993. Vegetation survey of the communal lands – north and west Zimbabwe. Kirkia. 14(2):171–270.
   Google Scholar
• Timberlake J, Shaw P. 1994. Chirinda Forest – A visitors’ guide. Harare (ZW): Forestry Commission.
   Google Scholar
• Torello-Raventos M, Feldpausch TR, Veenendaal E, Schrodt F, Saiz G, Domingues TF, Djagbletey G, Ford A, Kemp J, Marimon BS, et al. 2013. On the delineation of tropical vegetation types with an emphasis on forest/savanna transitions. Plant Ecology and Diversity. 6:101–137.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyson PD. 1986. Climatic change and variability in Southern Africa. Cape Town (ZA): Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• van der Merwe P. 1966. Die flora van Swartboskloof, Stellenbosch en die herstel van die soorte na ‘n brand. Annale Universiteit van Stellenbosch, Serie A. 41:687–736.
   Google Scholar
• van der Schijff HP. 1957. Ekologiese studie van die flora van die Nasionale Krugerwildtuin [Deel 1. DSc Thesis]. Potchefstroom (ZA): Univ. of Potchefstroom for CHE.
   Google Scholar
• van Deventer H, Cho MA, Mutanga O. 2019. Multi-season RapidEye imagery improves the classification of wetland and dryland communities in a subtropical coastal region. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 157:171–187.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Leeuwen CG. 1966. A relation theoretical approach to pattern and process in vegetation. Wentia. 15:25–46.
   Google Scholar
• van Nes EH, Staal A, Hantson S, Holmgren M, Pueyo S, Bernardi RE, Flores BM, Xu C, Scheffer M, Silva LCR. 2018. Fire forbids fifty-fifty forest. PLoS ONE. 13(1):e0191027. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0191027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Rooyen N, Theron GK, Grobbelaar N. 1981. A floristic description and structural analysis of the plant communities of the Punda Milia–Pafuri–Wambiya area in the Kruger National Park, Republic of South Africa: 2. The sandveld communities. South African Journal of Botany. 47:405–449.
   Google Scholar
• *van Staden PJ, Bredenkamp GJ. 2006. A floristic analysis of forest and thicket vegetation of the Marakele National park. Koedoe. 49(1):15–32.
   Google Scholar
• van Wyk AE, Smith GF. 2001. Regions of floristic endemism in Southern Africa. A review with emphasis on succulents. Hatfield (ZA): Umdaus Press.
   Google Scholar
• Van Zinderen Bakker JE. 1973. Ecological investigations of forest communities in the eastern Orange Free State and the adjacent Natal Drakensberg. Vegetatio. 28:299–334.
   Google Scholar
• *Venter CE. 2003. The vegetation ecology of Mfabeni peat swamp, St Lucia, KwaZulu-Natal [MSc thesis]. Pretoria (ZA): University of Pretoria.
   Google Scholar
• Vieira DLM, Scariot A. 2006. Principles of natural regeneration of tropical dry forests for restoration. Restoration Ecology. 14:11–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Von Maltitz G, Mucina L, Geldenhuys CJ, Lawes M, Eeley H, Adie H, Vink D, Fleming G, Bailey C. 2003. Classification system for South African indigenous forests: An objective classification for the Department of water affairs and forestry. Report ENV-P-C 2003-017. Pretoria (ZA): Environmentek CSIR.
   Google Scholar
• Walter H. 1970. Vegetation und klimazonen. Stuttgart (DE): Verlag von Eugen Ulmer.
   Google Scholar
• Walter H, Box E. 1976. Global classification of natural terrestrial ecosystems. Vegetatio. 32:75–81.
   Google Scholar
• *Werger MJA. 1973. An account of the plant communities of Tussen die Riviere Game Farm, Orange Free State. Bothalia. 11:165–176.
   Google Scholar
• Wessels N. 1991a. The swamp forests of Lake St. Lucia. African Wildlife. 45:256–263.
   Google Scholar
• Wessels NG. 1991b. The syntaxonomy and synecology of swamp forests in the Lake St. Lucia area, natal. Pretoria (ZA): Forestek, CSIR.
   Google Scholar
• White F. 1978. The Afromontane region. In: Werger MJA, Van Bruggen AC, editors. Biogeography and ecology of Southern Africa. The Hague (NL): Dr W. Junk; p. 463–513.
   Google Scholar
• White F. 1983. Vegetation of Africa: A descriptive memoir to accompany the UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation Map of Africa. Paris (FR): UNESCO.
   Google Scholar
• *Wild H, Barbosa LAG. 1967. Vegetation map of the Flora Zambesiaca area. Salisbury [Harare] (ZW): M.O. Collins.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson JB, Agnew ADQ. 1992. Positive-feedback switches in plant communities. Advances in Ecological Research. 23:263–336.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WWF [World Wildlife Fund]. 2020. Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests. Southern Africa: Zambia (Angola). https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0203.
   Google Scholar
• Younge A, Negussie G, Burgess N. 2002. Eastern Africa coastal forest programme. regional workshop report, Nairobi, February 4–7 2002. Cape Town (ZA): Amanda Younge CC.
   Google Scholar
• Zachos J, Pagani M, Sloan L, Thomas E, Billups K. 2001. Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present. Science. 292:686–693.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zobel M, Scheiner S. 2016. The species pool concept as a framework for studying patterns of plant diversity. Journal of Vegetation Science. 27:8–18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar