Overview of Serum Uric Acid Treatment Targets in Gout: Why Less Than 6 mg/dL?

References

• CDC. Arthritis: Gout. 2015 [cited 2015 Aug 27]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/arthritis/basics/gout.html.
   Google Scholar
• Saccomano SJ, Ferrara LR. Treatment and prevention of gout. Nurse Pract. 2015;40(8):24–1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards NL. Crystal deposition diseases. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, editors. Goldman’s cecil medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2012. p. 1737–1743.
   Google Scholar
• McQueen FM, Reeves Q, Dalbeth N. New insights into an old disease: advanced imaging in the diagnosis and management of gout. Postgrad Med J. 2013;89(1048):87–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott JT. New knowledge of the pathogenesis of gout. J Clin Pathol Suppl (R Coll Pathol). 1978;12:205–213.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhu Y, Pandya BJ, Choi HK. Prevalence of gout and hyperuricemia in the US general population: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007–2008. Arthritis Rheum. 2011;63(10):3136–3141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CDC. Fibromyalgia. [ cited 2015 Sep 8]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/arthritis/basics/fibromyalgia.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Burton W, Morrison A, Maclean R, et al. Systematic review of studies of productivity loss due to rheumatoid arthritis. Occup Med (Lond). 2006;56(1):18–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu JT, Yeh HM, Liu SY, et al. Psoriatic arthritis: Epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment. World J Orthop. 2014;5(4):537–543.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim KY, Ralph Schumacher H, Hunsche E, et al. A literature review of the epidemiology and treatment of acute gout. Clin Ther. 2003;25(6):1593–1617.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards NL, Sundy JS, Forsythe A, et al. Work productivity loss due to flares in patients with chronic gout refractory to conventional therapy. J Med Econ. 2011;14(1):10–15.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Strand V, Khanna D, Singh JA, et al. Improved health-related quality of life and physical function in patients with refractory chronic gout following treatment with pegloticase: evidence from phase III randomized controlled trials. J Rheumatol. 2012;39(7):1450–1457.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker MA, Schumacher HR, Benjamin KL, et al. Quality of life and disability in patients with treatment-failure gout. J Rheumatol. 2009;36(5):1041–1048.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doherty M. New insights into the epidemiology of gout. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2009;48(Suppl 2):ii2–ii8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richette P, Bardin T. Gout. Lancet. 2010;375(9711):318–328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terkeltaub R. Update on gout: new therapeutic strategies and options. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2010;6(1):30–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi HK, Liu S, Curhan G. Intake of purine-rich foods, protein, and dairy products and relationship to serum levels of uric acid: the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52(1):283–289.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neogi T. Clinical practice. Gout. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(5):443–452.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soltani Z, Rasheed K, Kapusta DR, et al. Potential role of uric acid in metabolic syndrome, hypertension, kidney injury, and cardiovascular diseases: is it time for reappraisal? Curr Hypertens Rep. 2013;15(3):175–181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker JF, Schumacher HR. Update on gout and hyperuricemia. Int J Clin Pract. 2010;64(3):371–377.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li R, Miao L, Qin L, et al. A meta-analysis of the associations between the Q141K and Q126X ABCG2 gene variants and gout risk. Int J Clin Exp Pathol. 2015;8(9):9812–9823.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacFarlane LA, Kim SC. Gout: a review of nonmodifiable and modifiable risk factors. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2014;40(4):581–604.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saag KG, Choi H. Epidemiology, risk factors, and lifestyle modifications for gout. Arthritis Res Ther. 2006;8(Suppl 1):S2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace KL, Riedel AA, Joseph-Ridge N, et al. Increasing prevalence of gout and hyperuricemia over 10 years among older adults in a managed care population. J Rheumatol. 2004;31(8):1582–1587.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hench PS. Diagnosis and treatment of gout and gouty arthritis. JAMA. 1941;116(6):453–459.
   Google Scholar
• Perez-Ruiz F, Dalbeth N, Bardin T. A review of uric acid, crystal deposition disease, and gout. Adv Ther. 2015;32(1):31–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalbeth N, Stamp L. Hyperuricaemia and gout: time for a new staging system? Ann Rheum Dis. 2014;73(9):1598–1600.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamburger M, Baraf HS, Adamson TC 3rd, et al. Recommendations for the diagnosis and management of gout and hyperuricemia. Postgrad Med. 2011;123(6Suppl 1):3–36.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Becker MA. Arthritis and allied conditions. 14th ed. Philadelpia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wlikins; 2001. p. 2281–2313.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang W, Doherty M, Pascual E, et al. EULAR evidence based recommendations for gout. Part I: diagnosis. Report of a task force of the Standing Committee for International Clinical Studies Including Therapeutics (ESCISIT). Ann Rheum Dis. 2006;65(10):1301–1311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang W, Doherty M, Bardin T, et al. EULAR evidence based recommendations for gout. Part II: management. Report of a task force of the EULAR Standing Committee for International Clinical Studies Including Therapeutics (ESCISIT). Ann Rheum Dis. 2006;65(10):1312–1324.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roddy E, Doherty M. Epidemiology of gout. Arthritis Res Ther. 2010;12(6):223.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campion EW, Glynn RJ, DeLabry LO. Asymptomatic hyperuricemia. Risks and consequences in the Normative Aging Study. Am J Med. 1987;82(3):421–426.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bardin T, Richette P. Definition of hyperuricemia and gouty conditions. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2014;26(2):186–191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roddy E. Revisiting the pathogenesis of podagra: why does gout target the foot? J Foot Ankle Res. 2011;4(1):13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neogi T, Jansen TL, Dalbeth N, et al. Gout classification criteria: an American College of Rheumatology/European League Against Rheumatism collaborative initiative. Ann Rheum Dis. 2015;74(10):1789–1798.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puig JG, de Miguel E, Castillo MC, et al. Asymptomatic hyperuricemia: impact of ultrasonography. Nucleosides Nucleotides Nucleic Acids. 2008;27(6):592–595.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pascual E, Batlle-Gualda E, Martínez A, et al. Synovial fluid analysis for diagnosis of intercritical gout. Ann Intern Med. 1999;131(10):756–759.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter JD, Kedar RP, Anderson SR, et al. An analysis of MRI and ultrasound imaging in patients with gout who have normal plain radiographs. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2009;48(11):1442–1446.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chowalloor PV, Siew TK, Keen HI. Imaging in gout: A review of the recent developments. Ther Adv Musculoskelet Dis. 2014;6(4):131–143.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martillo MA, Nazzal L, Crittenden DB. The crystallization of monosodium urate. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2014;16(2):400.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terkeltaub R, Bushinsky DA, Becker MA. Recent developments in our understanding of the renal basis of hyperuricemia and the development of novel antihyperuricemic therapeutics. Arthritis Res Ther. 2006;8(Suppl 1):S4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiddis RW, Vlachos N, Calvert PD. Studies of urate crystallisation in relation to gout. Ann Rheum Dis. 1983;42(Suppl 1):12–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarawate CA, Patel PA, Schumacher HR, et al. Serum urate levels and gout flares: analysis from managed care data. J Clin Rheumatol. 2006;12(2):61–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li-Yu J, Clayburne G, Sieck M, et al. Treatment of chronic gout. Can we determine when urate stores are depleted enough to prevent attacks of gout? J Rheumatol. 2001;28(3):577–580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agudelo CA, Wise CM. Crystal-associated arthritis. Clin Geriatr Med. 1998;14(3):495–513.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terkeltaub R, Edwards NL. Chapter 6. In: Terkeltaub R, Edwards NL, editors. Gout: diagnosis and management of gouty arthritis and hyperuricemia. 3rd ed. Durant (OK): Professional Communications; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Fam AG. Gout, diet, and the insulin resistance syndrome. J Rheumatol. 2002;29(7):1350–1355.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keenan RT, Nowatzky J, Pillinger MH. Etiology and pathogenesis of hyperuricemia and gout. In Kelley’s textbook of rheumatology, 9th ed. 2013; Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• So A, Thorens B. Uric acid transport and disease. J Clin Invest. 2010;120(6):1791–1799.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grassi D, Ferri L, Desideri G, et al. Chronic hyperuricemia, uric acid deposit and cardiovascular risk. Curr Pharm Des. 2013;19(13):2432–2438.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perez-Ruiz F. Treating to target: a strategy to cure gout. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2009;48(Suppl 2):ii9–ii14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khanna D, Fitzgerald JD, Khanna PP, et al. American College of Rheumatology guidelines for management of gout. Part 1: systematic nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic therapeutic approaches to hyperuricemia. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2012;64(10):1431–1446.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richette P, Doherty M, Pascual E, et al. [SAT0531] Updated EULAR evidence-based recommendations for the management of gout. Ann Rheum Dis. 2014;73(Suppl2):783.
   Google Scholar
• Sivera F, Andres M, Carmona L, et al. Multinational evidence-based recommendations for the diagnosis and management of gout: integrating systematic literature review and expert opinion of a broad panel of rheumatologists in the 3e initiative. Ann Rheum Dis. 2014;73(2):328–335.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamanaka H. Revised version of guideline for the management of hyperuricemia and gout. Nihon Rinsho. 2008;66(4):643–646.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Romeijnders AC, Gorter KJ. Summary of the Dutch college of general practitioners’ “Gout” standard. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2002;146(7):309–313.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jordan KM, Cameron JS, Snaith M, et al. British Society for Rheumatology and British Health Professionals in Rheumatology guideline for the management of gout. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2007;46(8):1372–1374.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perez-Ruiz F, Calabozo M, Pijoan JI, et al. Effect of urate-lowering therapy on the velocity of size reduction of tophi in chronic gout. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;47(4):356–360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richette P, Frazier A, Bardin T. Impact of anti-inflammatory therapies, xanthine oxidase inhibitors and other urate-lowering therapies on cardiovascular diseases in gout. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2015;27(2):170–174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gasparyan AY, Ayvazyan L, Yessirkepov M, et al. Colchicine as an anti-inflammatory and cardioprotective agent. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2015;11(11):1781–1794.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holland R, McGill NW. Comprehensive dietary education in treated gout patients does not further improve serum urate. Intern Med J. 2015;45(2):189–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fels E, Sundy JS. Refractory gout: what is it and what to do about it? Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2008;20(2):198–202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schumacher HR Jr., Becker MA, Lloyd E, et al. Febuxostat in the treatment of gout: 5-yr findings of the FOCUS efficacy and safety study. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2009;48(2):188–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shoji A, Yamanaka H, Kamatani N. A retrospective study of the relationship between serum urate level and recurrent attacks of gouty arthritis: evidence for reduction of recurrent gouty arthritis with antihyperuricemic therapy. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;51(3):321–325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pascual E, Sivera F. Time required for disappearance of urate crystals from synovial fluid after successful hypouricaemic treatment relates to the duration of gout. Ann Rheum Dis. 2007;66(8):1056–1058.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCarthy GM, Barthelemy CR, Veum JA, et al. Influence of antihyperuricemic therapy on the clinical and radiographic progression of gout. Arthritis Rheum. 1991;34(12):1489–1494.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalbeth N, Doyle A, McQueen FM, et al. Exploratory study of radiographic change in patients with tophaceous gout treated with intensive urate-lowering therapy. Arthritis Care & Research. 2012;66(1):82–85.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalbeth N, Saag KG, Palmer W, et al. Imaging and safety assessments following treatment with febuxostat and placebo for 2 years in subjects with early gout [abstract]. Arthritis & Rheumatism. 2015;67(Suppl 10). Abstract no. 2110.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards NL. Quality of care in patients with gout: why is management suboptimal and what can be done about it? Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2011;13(2):154–159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oderda GM, Shiozawa A, Walsh M, et al. Physician adherence to ACR gout treatment guidelines: perception versus practice. Postgrad Med. 2014;126(3):257–267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards RR, Wasan AD, Bingham CO, et al. Enhanced reactivity to pain in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther. 2009;11(3):R46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riedel AA, Nelson M, Joseph-Ridge N, et al. Compliance with allopurinol therapy among managed care enrollees with gout: a retrospective analysis of administrative claims. J Rheumatol. 2004;31(8):1575–1581.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rees F, Jenkins W, Doherty M. Patients with gout adhere to curative treatment if informed appropriately: proof-of-concept observational study. Ann Rheum Dis. 2013;72(6):826–830.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrold LR, Mazor KM, Negron A, et al. Primary care providers’ knowledge, beliefs and treatment practices for gout: results of a physician questionnaire. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2013;52(9):1623–1629.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cronstein BN, Terkeltaub R. The inflammatory process of gout and its treatment. Arthritis Res Ther. 2006;8(Suppl 1):S3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang W, Doherty M, Leeb BF, et al. EULAR evidence based recommendations for the management of hand osteoarthritis: report of a Task Force of the EULAR Standing Committee for International Clinical Studies Including Therapeutics (ESCISIT). Ann Rheum Dis. 2007;66(3):377–388.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perez-Ruiz F, Martin I, Canteli B. Ultrasonographic measurement of tophi as an outcome measure for chronic gout. J Rheumatol. 2007;34(9):1888–1893.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandratre P, Roddy E, Clarson L, et al. Health-related quality of life in gout: a systematic review. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2013;52(11):2031–2040.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krishnan E, Lienesch D, Kwoh CK. Gout in ambulatory care settings in the United States. J Rheumatol. 2008;35(3):498–501.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh JA, Sarkin A, Shieh M, et al. Health care utilization in patients with gout. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2011;40(6):501–511.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wortmann RL. Effective management of gout: an analogy. Am J Med. 1998;105(6):513–514.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar