Macrolide and fluoroquinolone mediated cardiac arrhythmias: clinical considerations and comprehensive review

References

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Get smart about antibiotics |Measuring outpatient prescribing |CDC [Internet]. Atlanta, GA: 2014. [cited 2017 Feb 13]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/community/programs-measurement/measuring-antibiotic-prescribing.html
   Google Scholar
• Giudicessi JR, Ackerman MJ. Azithromycin and risk of sudden cardiac death: guilty as charged or falsely accused? Cleve Clin J Med [Internet]. 2013;80(9):539–544. cited 2016 Oct 19. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24001961
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu ZK, Yuan J, Li M, et al. Cardiac risks associated with antibiotics: azithromycin and levofloxacin. Expert Opin Drug Saf [Internet]. 2015;14(2):295–303. cited 2016 Oct 20. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25494485
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng Y-J, Nie X-Y, Chen X-M, et al. The role of macrolide antibiotics in increasing cardiovascular risk. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 2015;66(20):2173–2184. cited 2016 Nov 16. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26564594
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trac MH, McArthur E, Jandoc R, et al. Macrolide antibiotics and the risk of ventricular arrhythmia in older adults. Can Med Assoc J [Internet]. 2016;188(7):E120–9. cited 2017 Feb 16. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26903359
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boggs W Macrolide antibiotics not tied to higher ventricular arrhythmia risk in older adults. 2016. [cited 2017 Feb 13]. Available from: www.acepnow.com
   Google Scholar
• Inghammar M, Svanström H, Melbye M, et al. Oral fluoroquinolone use and serious arrhythmia: bi-national cohort study. Bmj. 2016;352:i843.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashley EA, Niebauer J. Cardiology explained chapter 8 arrhythmia [Internet]. London:Remedica. 2004. cited 2016 Nov 16. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2219/
   Google Scholar
• Becker DE. Fundamentals of electrocardiography interpretation. Anesth Prog [Internet]. 2006;53(2):53–63.cited 2016 Nov 16. quiz 64. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16863387
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Albert RK, Schuller JL. COPD Clinical Research Network. Macrolide antibiotics and the risk of cardiac arrhythmias. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;189(10):1173–1180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Noord C, Eijgelsheim M, Stricker BHC. Drug- and non-drug-associated QT interval prolongation. Br J Clin Pharmacol [Internet]. 2010;70(1):16–23. cited 2016 Oct 19. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20642543
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milberg P, Eckardt L, Bruns H-J, et al. Divergent proarrhythmic potential of macrolide antibiotics despite similar qt prolongation: fast phase 3 repolarization prevents early afterdepolarizations and Torsade de Pointes. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2002;303(1).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohtani H, Taninaka C, Hanada E, et al. Comparative pharmacodynamic analysis of Q-T interval prolongation induced by the macrolides clarithromycin, roxithromycin, and azithromycin in rats. Antimicrob Agents Chemother [Internet]. 2000;44(10):2630–2637. cited 2016 Oct 20. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10991836
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owens RC. QT prolongation with antimicrobial agents: understanding the significance. Drugs [Internet]. 2004;64(10):1091–1124. cited 2016 Oct 20. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15139788
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curran ME, Splawski I, Timothy KW, et al. A molecular basis for cardiac arrhythmia: HERG mutations cause long QT syndrome. Cell [Internet]. 1995;80(5):795–803. cited 2016 Oct 20. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7889573
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haverkamp W, Breithardt G, Camm AJ, et al. The potential for QT prolongation and pro-arrhythmia by non-anti-arrhythmic drugs: clinical and regulatory implications. Cardiovasc Res. 2000;47(2):219–233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antzelevitch C, Sicouri S. Clinical relevance of cardiac arrhythmias generated by afterdepolarizations. Role of M cells in the generation of U waves, triggered activity and torsade de pointes. J Am Coll Cardiol [Internet]. 1994;23(1):259–277. cited 2016 Oct 20. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8277090
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim MH, Berkowitz C, Trohman RG. Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia with a Normal QT Interval Following Azithromycin. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol [Internet]. 2005;28(11):1221–1222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Priori SG, Napolitano C, Schwartz PJ. Low penetrance in the long-QT syndrome: clinical impact. Circulation [Internet]. 1999;99(4):529–533. cited 2016 Nov 16. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9927399
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinterseer M, Beckmann B-M, Thomsen MB, et al. Relation of increased short-term variability of QT interval to congenital long-QT syndrome. Am J Cardiol [Internet]. 2009;103(9):1244–1248. cited 2016 Nov 16. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19406266
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehtonen A, Fodstad H, Laitinen-Forsblom P, et al. Further evidence of inherited long QT syndrome gene mutations in antiarrhythmic drug-associated torsades de pointes. Heart Rhythm [Internet]. 2007;4(5):603–607. cited 2016 Nov 16. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17467628
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nachimuthu S, Assar MD, Schussler JM. Drug-induced QT interval prolongation: mechanisms and clinical management. Ther Adv Drug Saf [Internet]. 2012;3(5):241–253. cited 2016 Nov 16. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25083239
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Abbott GW. KCNE genetics and pharmacogenomics in cardiac arrhythmias: much ado about nothing? Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol [Internet]. 2013;6(1):49–60. cited 2016 Nov 16. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23272793
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Itoh H, Sakaguchi T, Ding W-G, et al. Latent genetic backgrounds and molecular pathogenesis in drug-induced long-QT syndrome. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2009;2(5):511–523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Justo D, Zeltser D. Torsades de pointes induced by antibiotics. Eur J Intern Med [Internet]. 2006;17(4):254–259. cited 2016 Nov 16. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16762774
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeyaraj D, Abernethy DP, Natarajan RN, et al. IKr channel blockade to unmask occult congenital long QT syndrome. Hear Rhythm. 2008;5(1):2–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis LH, Østbye T, Sendersky V, et al. Prescription of QT-prolonging drugs in a cohort of about 5 million outpatients. Am J Med [Internet]. 2003;114(2):135–141. cited 2016 Nov 16. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12586234
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taubel J, Naseem A, Harada T, et al. Levofloxacin can be used effectively as a positive control in thorough QT/QTc studies in healthy volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol [Internet]. 2010;69(4):391–400. cited 2016 Nov 16]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20406223
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hancox JC, Hasnain M, Vieweg WVR, et al. Erythromycin, QTc interval prolongation, and torsade de pointes: case reports, major risk factors and illness severity. Ther Adv Infect Dis [Internet]. 2014;2(2):47–59. 2017 Feb 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25165555
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vieweg WVR, Hancox JC, Hasnain M, et al. Clarithromycin, QTc interval prolongation and torsades de pointes: the need to study case reports. Ther Adv Infect Dis [Internet]. 2013;1(4):121–138. cited 2017 Feb 8. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25165548
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zeltser D, Justo D, Halkin A, et al. Torsade de pointes due to noncardiac drugs: most patients have easily identifiable risk factors. Medicine (Baltimore) [Internet]. 2003;82(4):282–290. cited 2016 Nov 16]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12861106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iannini PB. Cardiotoxicity of macrolides, ketolides and fluoroquinolones that prolong the QTc interval. Expert Opin Drug Saf [Internet]. 2002;1(2):121–128. cited 2016 Nov 16]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12904146
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Juurlink DN. The cardiovascular safety of azithromycin. CMAJ [Internet]. 2014;186(15):1127–1128. cited 2016 Oct 20]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25096666
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao GA, Mann JR, Shoaibi A, et al. Azithromycin and Levofloxacin use and increased risk of cardiac arrhythmia and death. Ann Fam Med [Internet]. 2014;12(2):121–127. cited 2017 Feb 10]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24615307
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ISMP Canada Safety Bulletin Vol 14 Issue 5. 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Okeahialam B. Cardiac dysrhythmia resulting from antibiotic abuse. Niger Med J [Internet]. 2015;56(6):429. cited 2017 Feb 13. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26903703
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lenehan PJ, Schramm CM, Collins MS. An evaluation strategy for potential QTc prolongation with chronic azithromycin therapy in cystic fibrosis. J Cyst Fibros. 2016 Mar;15(2):192–195. doi: 10.1016/j.jcf.2015.11.012. Epub 2015 Dec 12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Drug Safety Communication: azithromycin (Zithromax or Zmax) and the risk of potentially fatal heart rhythms. 2013. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm341822.htm
   Google Scholar
• Poluzzi E, Raschi E, Moretti U, et al. Drug-induced torsades de pointes: data mining of the public version of the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (AERS). Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2009;18(6):512–518.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hancox JC, Hasnain M, Vieweg WVR, et al. Azithromycin, cardiovascular risks, QTc interval prolongation, torsade de pointes, and regulatory issues: a narrative review based on the study of case reports. Ther Adv Infect Dis [Internet]. 2013;1(5):155–165. cited 2016 Nov 16]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25165550
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ray WA, Murray KT, Hall K, et al. Azithromycin and the risk of cardiovascular death. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2012;366(20):1881–1890.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arellano-Rodrigo E, García A, Mont L, et al. Torsade de pointes and cardiorespiratory arrest induced by azithromycin in a patient with congenital long QT syndrome. Medicina Clínica. 2001;117(3):118–119. cited 2016 Oct 20]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11459586
   Google Scholar
• Kezerashvili A, Khattak H, Barsky A, et al. Azithromycin as a cause of QT-interval prolongation and torsade de pointes in the absence of other known precipitating factors. J Interv Card Electrophysiol [Internet]. 2007;18(3):243–246. cited 2016 Oct 20]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17546486
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russo V, Puzio G, Siniscalchi N. Azithromycin-induced QT prolongation in elderly patient. Acta Biomed [Internet]. 2006;77(1):30–32. cited 2016 Oct 20]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16856707
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grady D. Popular antibiotic may raise risk of sudden death. New York Times. 2012
   Google Scholar
• Svanström H, Pasternak B, Hviid A. Use of Azithromycin and death from cardiovascular causes. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2013;368(18):1704–1712.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strle F, Maraspin V. Is azithromycin treatment associated with prolongation of the Q-Tc interval? Wien Klin Wochenschr [Internet]. 2002;114(10–11):396–399. cited 2016 Oct 19. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12708094
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong AYS, Root A, Douglas IJ, et al. Cardiovascular outcomes associated with use of clarithromycin: population based study. BMJ [Internet]. 2016:352:h6926. cited 2017 Feb 8]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26768836
   Google Scholar
• Berni E, De Voogd H, Halcox JP, et al. Risk of cardiovascular events, arrhythmia and all-cause mortality associated with clarithromycin versus alternative antibiotics prescribed for respiratory tract infections: a retrospective cohort study. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2017;7(1):e013398. cited 2017 Feb 16. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28115334
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberg K, Bauman J. QT interval prolongation and torsades de pointes due to erythromycin lactobionate. Pharmacotherapy [Internet]. 15(6):687–692.cited 2016 Nov 16]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8602374
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaffer D, Singer S, Korvick J, et al. Concomitant risk factors in reports of torsades de pointes associated with macrolide use: review of the United States Food and Drug Administration adverse event reporting system. Clin Infect Dis [Internet]. 2002;35(2):197–200. cited 2016 Nov 16]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12087527
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ray WA, Murray KT, Meredith S, et al. Oral Erythromycin and the risk of sudden death from cardiac causes. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2004;351(11):1089–1096.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss K, Allgren RL, Sellers S. Safety analysis of fidaxomicin in comparison with oral vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infections. Clin Infect Dis [Internet]. 2012;55(Suppl 2):S110–5. cited 2017 Feb 16. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22752858
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagberg L, Carbon C, van Rensburg DJ, et al. Telithromycin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: a pooled analysis. Respir Med [Internet]. 2003;97(6):625–633. cited 2017 Feb 21]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12814146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demolis J, Vacheron F, Cardus S, et al. Effect of single and repeated oral doses of telithromycin on cardiac QT interval in healthy subjects*1. Clin Pharmacol Ther [Internet]. 2003;73(3):242–252. cited 2017 Feb 21]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12621389
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demolis J-L, Strabach S, Vacheron F, et al. Assessment of the effect of a single oral dose of telithromycin on sotalol-induced qt interval prolongation in healthy women. Br J Clin Pharmacol [Internet]. 2005;60(2):120–127. cited 2017 Feb 21]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16042664
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dusetzina SB, Higashi AS, Dorsey ER, et al. Impact of FDA drug risk communications on health care utilization and health behaviors: a systematic review. Med Care [Internet]. 2012;50(6):466–478. cited 2017 Feb 21]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22266704
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker RC, Wright AJ. The fluoroquinolones. Mayo Clin Proc [Internet]. 1991;66(12):1249–1259. cited 2016 Nov 16]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1749294
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noel GJ, Natarajan J, Chien S, et al. Effects of three fluoroquinolones on QT interval in healthy adults after single doses. Clin Pharmacol Ther [Internet]. 2003;73(4):292–303. cited 2016 Nov 23]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12709719
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fleming-Dutra KE, Hersh AL, Shapiro DJ, et al. Prevalence of inappropriate antibiotic prescriptions among US ambulatory care visits, 2010-2011. JAMA [Internet]. 2016;315(17):1864–1873. cited 2016 Nov 23]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27139059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson ME, Mazur A, Yang T, et al. Potassium current antagonist properties and proarrhythmic consequences of quinolone antibiotics. J Pharmacol Exp Ther [Internet]. 2001;296(3):806–810. cited 2016 Nov 16]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11181910
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King DE, Malone R, Lilley SH. New classification and update on the quinolone antibiotics. Am Fam Physician [Internet]. 2000;61(9):2741–2748. cited 2017 Feb 21]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10821154
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ventola CL. The antibiotic resistance crisis: part 1: causes and threats. P T [Internet]. 2015;40(4):277–283. cited 2017 Feb 21]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25859123
   Google Scholar
• Crediblemeds.com. The antibiotic resistance crisis: part 1: causes and threatTHAT PROLONG QT AND/OR CAUSE TORSADES DE POINTES (TDP). 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Bolognesi M, Bolognesi D. Ciprofloxacin-induced paroxysmal atrial fibrilation. OA Case Reports. 2014;3(3):24.
   Google Scholar
• Keivanidou A, Arnaoutoglou C, Krommydas A, et al. Ciprofloxacin induced acquired long QT syndrome in a patient under class III antiarrhythmic therapy. Cardiol J [Internet]. 2009;16(2):172–174. cited 2017 Feb 21]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19387967
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Food and Drug Administration. Recalling the Omniflox (Temafloxacin) Tablets. 1992. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/98/briefingbook/1998-3454B1_03_WL49.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Organization WH. GlaxoWellcome voluntarily withdraws Raxar (grepafloxacin). [Internet]. 1999. [cited 2017 Feb 13]. Available from: http://www.who.int/medicines/publications/drugalerts/drug_alert92grepafloxacin_voluntarily_withdrawn.pdf?ua=1
   Google Scholar
• Samaha FF. QTC interval prolongation and polymorphic ventricular tachycardia in association with levofloxacin. Am J Med [Internet]. 1999;107(5):528–529. cited 2017 Feb 21]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10569314
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen HJ, Bloch KJ, Maclean JA. Acute eosinophilic hepatitis from trovafloxacin. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2000;342(5):359–360. cited 2017 Feb 22]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10660405
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandell L, Tillotson G. Safety of fluoroquinolones: an update. Can J Infect Dis [Internet]. 2002;13(1):54–61. cited 2016 Nov 23]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18159374
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chou H-W, Wang J-L, Chang C-H, et al. Risks of cardiac arrhythmia and mortality among patients using new-generation macrolides, fluoroquinolones, and β-Lactam/β-lactamase inhibitors: a Taiwanese Nationwide Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;15(60):566–577.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iannini PB, Kubin R, Reiter C, et al. Reassuring safety profile of Moxifloxacin. Clin Infect Dis [Internet]. 2001;32(7):1112–1114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kubin R, Reiter C Safety update of moxifolxacin: a current review of clinical trials and post-marketing observational studies. 40th Interscience Congress on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Toronto: 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Briasoulis A, Agarwal V, Pierce WJ. QT prolongation and torsade de pointes induced by fluoroquinolones: infrequent side effects from commonly used medications. Cardiology [Internet]. 2011;120(2):103–110. cited 2016 Nov 16]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22156660
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owens RC. Risk assessment for antimicrobial agent-induced QTc interval prolongation and torsades de pointes. Pharmacotherapy [Internet]. 2001;21(3):301–319. cited 2017 Feb 22]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11253855
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ball P. Quinolone-induced QT interval prolongation: a not-so-unexpected class effect. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000;45(5):557–559.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lapi F, Wilchesky M, Kezouh A, et al. Fluoroquinolones and the risk of serious arrhythmia: a population-based study. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55(11):1457–1465.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Passman R, Kadish A. Polymorphic ventricular tachycardia, long Q-T syndrome, and torsades de pointes. Med Clin North Am [Internet]. 2001;85(2):321–341. cited 2017 Feb 14]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11233951
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roden DM, Woosley RL, Primm RK. Incidence and clinical features of the quinidine-associated long QT syndrome: implications for patient care. Am Heart J [Internet]. 1986;111(6):1088–1093. cited 2017 Feb 14]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3716982
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tisdale JE. Drug-induced QT interval prolongation and torsades de pointes: role of the pharmacist in risk assessment, prevention and management. Can Pharm J (Ott) [Internet]. 2016;149(3):139–152. cited 2016 Nov 16]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27212965
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoshino K, Ogawa K, Hishitani T, et al. Optimal administration dosage of magnesium sulfate for torsades de pointes in children with long QT syndrome. J Am Coll Nutr [Internet]. 2004;23(5):497S–500S. cited 2016 Nov 23. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15466950
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neumar RW, Otto CW, Link MS, et al. Part 8: adult advanced cardiovascular life support. Circulation. 2010;122(18 suppl 3).
   Google Scholar
• Link MS, Berkow LC, Kudenchuk PJ, et al. Part 7: adult advanced cardiovascular life support. Circulation. 2015;132(18 suppl 2).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah RR. Pharmacogenetic aspects of drug-induced torsade de pointes: potential tool for improving clinical drug development and prescribing. Drug Saf. 2004;27(3):145–172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stratmann HG, Kennedy HL. Torsades de pointes associated with drugs and toxins: recognition and management. Am Heart J. 1987;113(6):1470–1482.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albert RK, Connett J, Bailey WC, et al. Azithromycin for prevention of exacerbations of COPD. N Engl J Med. 2011;365(8):689–698.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berg HF, Maraha B, Scheffer G-J, et al. Treatment with clarithromycin prior to coronary artery bypass graft surgery does not prevent subsequent cardiac events. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40(3):358–365.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crouch MA, Limon L, Cassano AT. Clinical relevance and management of drug-related QT interval prolongation. Pharmacotherapy. 2003;23(7):881–908.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang J, Wang L, Chen XL, et al. Interactions of a series of fluoroquinolone antibacterial drugs with the human cardiac K+ channel HERG. Mol Pharmacol [Internet]. 2001;59(1):122–126. cited 2016 Oct 20]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11125032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehlhorn AJ, Brown DA. Safety concerns with fluoroquinolones. Ann Pharmacother. 2007;41(11):1859–1866.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baptista R, Silva S, Dias P, et al. In-hospital prescription of QT-prolonging drugs in a cohort of more than 100,000 patients. Int J Cardiol. 2011;147(1):165–166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volberg WA, Koci BJ, Su W, et al. Blockade of human cardiac potassium channel human ether-a-go-go-related gene (HERG) by macrolide antibiotics. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2002;302(1):320–327.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niedrig D, Maechler S, Hoppe L, et al. Drug safety of macrolide and quinolone antibiotics in a tertiary care hospital: administration of interacting co-medication and QT prolongation. Eur J Clin Pharmacol [Internet]. 2016;72(7):859–867. cited 2016 Nov 16]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27023463
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frommeyer G, Eckardt L. Drug-induced proarrhythmia: risk factors and electrophysiological mechanisms. Nat Rev Cardiol [Internet]. 2015;13(1):36–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maisch NM, Kochupurackal JG, Sin J. Azithromycin and the risk of cardiovascular complications. J Pharm Pract [Internet]. 2013;27(5):496–500. cited 2016 Oct 19]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24381242
   Google Scholar