Re-examining insulin compared to non-insulin therapies for type 2 diabetes: when in the disease trajectory is insulin preferable?

References

• Defronzo RA. Banting lecture. From the triumvirate to the ominous octet: a new paradigm for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes. 2009;58(4):773–795. PubMed PMID: 19336687; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC2661582. Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connor T, Martin SD, Howlett KF, et al. Metabolic remodelling in obesity and type 2 diabetes: pathological or protective mechanisms in response to nutrient excess? Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2015;42(1):109–115. PubMed PMID: 25443425; Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanik MH, Xu Y, Skrha J, et al. Insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia: is hyperinsulinemia the cart or the horse? Diabetes Care. 2008;31(Suppl 2):S262–8. PubMed PMID: 18227495; eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts CK, Hevener AL, Barnard RJ. Metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance: underlying causes and modification by exercise training. Compr Physiol. 2013;3(1):1–58. PubMed PMID: 23720280; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4129661. eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakka HM, Lakka TA, Tuomilehto J, et al. Hyperinsulinemia and the risk of cardiovascular death and acute coronary and cerebrovascular events in men: the kuopio ischaemic heart disease risk factor study. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160(8):1160–1168. PubMed PMID: 10789610; eng
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reaven GM. Insulin resistance/compensatory hyperinsulinemia, essential hypertension, and cardiovascular disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(6):2399–2403. PubMed PMID: 12788834; eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdul-Ghani MA, Jayyousi A, DeFronzo RA, et al. Insulin resistance the link between T2DM and CVD: basic mechanisms and clinical implications. Curr Vasc Pharmacol. 2017. DOI:10.2174/1570161115666171010115119. PubMed PMID: 29032755; eng.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faghihi-Kashani S, Bonnet F, Hafezi-Nejad N, et al. Fasting hyperinsulinaemia and 2-h glycaemia predict coronary heart disease in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab. 2016;42(1):55–61. PubMed PMID: 26531321; eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Lancet (London, England). 1998;352(9131):837–853. PubMed PMID: 9742976; eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz SS, Jellinger PS, Herman ME. Obviating much of the need for insulin therapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus: A re-assessment of insulin therapy’s safety profile. Postgrad Med. 2016;128(6):609–619. PubMed PMID: 27210018; eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matteucci E, Giampietro O, Covolan V, et al. Insulin administration: present strategies and future directions for a noninvasive (possibly more physiological) delivery. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2015;9:3109–3118. PubMed PMID: 26124635; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4476457. eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marso SP, McGuire DK, Zinman B, et al. Efficacy and safety of degludec versus glargine in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(8):723–732. PubMed PMID: 28605603; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5731244. eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The ORIGIN Trial Investigators, Gerstein HC, Bosch J, et al. Basal insulin and cardiovascular and other outcomes in dysglycemia. N Engl J Med. 2012;367(4):319–328. PubMed PMID: 22686416; Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nolan CJ, Ruderman NB, Kahn SE, et al. Insulin resistance as a physiological defense against metabolic stress: implications for the management of subsets of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2015;64(3):673–686. PubMed PMID: 25713189; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4338588. Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herman ME, O’Keefe JH, Bell DSH, et al. Insulin therapy increases cardiovascular risk in type 2 diabetes. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2017;60(3):422–434. PubMed PMID: 28958751; eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mu PW, Chen YM, Lu HY, et al. Effects of a combination of oral anti-diabetes drugs with basal insulin therapy on beta-cell function and glycaemic control in patients with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2012;28(3):236–240. PubMed PMID: 21898754; Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weng J, Li Y, Xu W, et al. Effect of intensive insulin therapy on beta-cell function and glycaemic control in patients with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes: a multicentre randomised parallel-group trial. Lancet (London, England). 2008;371(9626):1753–1760. PubMed PMID: 18502299; Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen HS, Wu TE, Jap TS, et al. Beneficial effects of insulin on glycemic control and beta-cell function in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes with severe hyperglycemia after short-term intensive insulin therapy. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(10):1927–1932. PubMed PMID: 18556343; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC2551629. Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng Q, Yang S, Zhao C, et al. Efficacy of metformin-based oral antidiabetic drugs is not inferior to insulin glargine in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetic patients with severe hyperglycemia after short-term intensive insulin therapy. J Diabetes. 2015;7(2):182–191. PubMed PMID: 24823280; Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison LB, Adams-Huet B, Raskin P, et al. Beta-cell function preservation after 3.5 years of intensive diabetes therapy. Diabetes Care. 2012;35(7):1406–1412. PubMed PMID: 22723578; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3379585. Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison LB, Adams-Huet B, Li X, et al. Intensive therapy in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes: results of a 6-year randomized trial. J Invest Med. 2014;62(4):676–686. PubMed PMID: 24569485; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4247540. Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pistrosch F, Kohler C, Schaper F, et al. Effects of insulin glargine versus metformin on glycemic variability, microvascular and beta-cell function in early type 2 diabetes. Acta Diabetol. 2013;50(4):587–595. PubMed PMID: 23430192; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3778903. Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu W, Bi Y, Sun Z, et al. Comparison of the effects on glycaemic control and beta-cell function in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes patients of treatment with exenatide, insulin or pioglitazone: a multicentre randomized parallel-group trial (the CONFIDENCE study). J Intern Med. 2015;277(1):137–150. PubMed PMID: 25039675; Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdul-Ghani MA, Puckett C, Triplitt C, et al. Initial combination therapy with metformin, pioglitazone and exenatide is more effective than sequential add-on therapy in subjects with new-onset diabetes. Results from the efficacy and durability of initial combination therapy for type 2 diabetes (EDICT): a randomized trial. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2015;17(3):268–275. PubMed PMID: 25425451; Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pradhan AD, Everett BM, Cook NR, et al. Effects of initiating insulin and metformin on glycemic control and inflammatory biomarkers among patients with type 2 diabetes: the LANCET randomized trial. JAMA. 2009;302(11):1186–1194. PubMed PMID: 19755697; Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D’Alessio D, Haring HU, Charbonnel B, et al. Comparison of insulin glargine and liraglutide added to oral agents in patients with poorly controlled type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2015;17(2):170–178. PubMed PMID: 25359159; Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dorkhan M, Frid A, Groop L. Differences in effects of insulin glargine or pioglitazone added to oral anti-diabetic therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes: what to add–insulin glargine or pioglitazone? Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2008;82(3):340–345. PubMed PMID: 18926586; Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerstein HC, Yale JF, Harris SB, et al. A randomized trial of adding insulin glargine vs. avoidance of insulin in people with Type 2 diabetes on either no oral glucose-lowering agents or submaximal doses of metformin and/or sulphonylureas. The Canadian INSIGHT (Implementing New Strategies with Insulin Glargine for Hyperglycaemia Treatment) Study. Diabetic Med. 2006;23(7):736–742. PubMed PMID: 16842477; Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abd El Aziz MS, Kahle M, Meier JJ, et al. A meta-analysis comparing clinical effects of short- or long-acting GLP-1 receptor agonists versus insulin treatment from head-to-head studies in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2016. doi:10.1111/dom.12804. PubMed PMID: 27717195; Eng.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Diabetes Association. Pharmacologic approaches to glycemic treatment: standards of medical care in diabetes-2018. Diabetes Care. 2018;41(Suppl 1):S73–s85. PubMed PMID: 29222379; eng.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pories WJ, Dohm GL. Diabetes: have we got it all wrong? Hyperinsulinism as the culprit: surgery provides the evidence. Diabetes Care. 2012;35(12):2438–2442. PubMed PMID: 23173133; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3507594. eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taegtmeyer H, Beauloye C, Harmancey R, et al. Insulin resistance protects the heart from fuel overload in dysregulated metabolic states. Am J Physiol Heart Circulatory Physiol. 2013;305(12): H1693–7. PubMed PMID: 24097426; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3882545. Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nolan CJ, Ruderman NB, Kahn SE. et al. Response to Comments on Nolan et al. Insulin resistance as a physiological defense against metabolic stress: implications for the management of subsets of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2015;64, 673–686; PubMed Central PMCID: 26405280; Eng.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del Prato S. Role of glucotoxicity and lipotoxicity in the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus and emerging treatment strategies. Diabetic Med. 2009;26(12):1185–1192. PubMed PMID: 20002468; Eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Currie CJ, Poole CD, Evans M, et al. Mortality and other important diabetes-related outcomes with insulin vs other antihyperglycemic therapies in type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98(2):668–677. PubMed PMID: 23372169; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3612791. eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colayco DC, Niu F, McCombs JS, et al. A1C and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes: a nested case-control study. Diabetes Care. 2011;34(1):77–83. PubMed PMID: 20937686; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3005458. eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Margolis DJ, Hoffstad O, Strom BL. Association between serious ischemic cardiac outcomes and medications used to treat diabetes. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2008;17(8):753–759. PubMed PMID: 18613215; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC2635115. eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenstock J, Cheng A, Ritzel R, et al. More similarities than differences testing insulin glargine 300 units/mL versus insulin degludec 100 units/mL in insulin-naive type 2 diabetes: the randomized head-to-head BRIGHT trial. Diabetes Care. 2018. DOI:10.2337/dc18-0559. PubMed PMID: 30104294; eng.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rys P, Wojciechowski P, Rogoz-Sitek A, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials comparing efficacy and safety outcomes of insulin glargine with NPH insulin, premixed insulin preparations or with insulin detemir in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Acta Diabetol. 2015;52(4):649–662. PubMed PMID: 25585592; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4506471. eng
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar