Making sense of glucose metrics in diabetes: linkage between postprandial glucose (PPG), time in range (TIR) & hemoglobin A1c (A1C)

References

• The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration. . Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: a collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies. Lancet. 2010;375(9733):2215–2222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Diabetes Fact Sheet. 2018. cited 2020 Mar 10. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Statistics Report 2020: Estimates of Diabetes and Its Burden in the United States. 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Edelman SV and Polonsky WH. Type 2 diabetes in the real world: the elusive nature of glycemic control. Diabetes Care. 2017;40(11):1425–1432.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kazemian P, Shebl FM, McCann N, et al. Evaluation of the cascade of diabetes care in the United States, 2005-2016. JAMA Intern Med. 2019; 179(10):1376-1385.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregg EW, Hora I, and Benoit SR. Resurgence in diabetes-related complications. JAMA. 2019;321(19):1867–1868.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UK prospective diabetes study (UKPDS) group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet. 1998;352(9131):837–853.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lind M, Odén A, Fahlén M,et al. The true value of HbA1c as a predictor of diabetic complications: simulations of HbA1c variables. PLoS One. 2009;4(2):e4412.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1993;329(14):977–986.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Virk SA, Donaghue KC, Cho YH, et al. Association between HbA1c variability and risk of microvascular complications in adolescents with type 1 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016;101(9):3257–3263.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. All About Your A1C. 2018.
   Google Scholar
• American Diabetes Association. 6. Glycemic targets: standards of medical care in diabetes-2020. Diabetes Care. 2020;43(Suppl 1):S66–S76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang X, Wang C, Chen D, et al. Contributions of basal glucose and postprandial glucose concentrations to hemoglobin A1c in the newly diagnosed patients with type 2 diabetes–the preliminary study. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2015;17(7):445–448.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ketema EB and Kibret KT. Correlation of fasting and postprandial plasma glucose with HbA1c in assessing glycemic control; systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Public Health. 2015;73:43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monnier L and Colette C. Contributions of fasting and postprandial glucose to hemoglobin A1c. Endocr Pract. 2006;12(Suppl 1):42–46.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Monnier L, Colette C, and Owens D. Postprandial and basal glucose in type 2 diabetes: assessment and respective impacts. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2011;13(Suppl 1):S25–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carls G, Huynh J, Tuttle E, et al. Achievement of glycated hemoglobin goals in the US remains unchanged through 2014. Diabetes Therapy. 2017;8(4):863–873.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casagrande SS, Fradkin JE, Saydah SH, et al. The prevalence of meeting A1C, blood pressure, and LDL goals among people with diabetes, 1988-2010. Diabetes Care. 2013;36(8):2271–2279.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster NC, Beck RW, Miller KM,et al. State of type 1 diabetes management and outcomes from the T1D exchange in 2016-2018. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2019;21(2):66–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck RW, Connor CG, Mullen DM, et al. The fallacy of average: how using HbA1c alone to assess glycemic control can be misleading. Diabetes Care. 2017;40(8):994–999.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radin MS. Pitfalls in hemoglobin A1c measurement: when results may be misleading. J Gen Intern Med. 2014;29(2):388–394.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qu Y, Jacober SJ, Zhang Q,et al. Rate of hypoglycemia in insulin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes can be predicted from glycemic variability data. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2012;14(11):1008–1012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox DJ, Kovatchev BP, Julian DM,et al. Frequency of severe hypoglycemia in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus can be predicted from self-monitoring blood glucose data. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1994;79(6):1659–1662.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ceriello A, Monnier L, Owens D. Glycaemic variability in diabetes: clinical and therapeutic implications. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2019;7(3):221–230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omladič JS, Ozimič AS, Vovk A, et al. Acute hyperglycemia and spatial working memory in adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2020;43(8):1941–1944.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin DD, Davis EA, and Jones TW. Acute effects of hyperglycaemia in children with type 1 diabetes mellitus: the patient’s perspective. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2006;19:927–936.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zelnick LR, Batacchi ZO, Ahmad I, et al. Continuous glucose monitoring and use of alternative markers to assess glycemia in chronic kidney disease. Diabetes Care. 2020;43(10):2379–2387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee J-E. Alternative biomarkers for assessing glycemic control in diabetes: fructosamine, glycated albumin, and 1,5-anhydroglucitol. Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2015;20:74-78.
   Google Scholar
• Kirk JK and Stegner J. Self-monitoring of blood glucose: practical aspects. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2010;4(2):435–439.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Miller KM, Beck RW, Bergenstal RM, et al. Evidence of a strong association between frequency of self-monitoring of blood glucose and hemoglobin A1c levels in T1D exchange clinic registry participants. Diabetes Care. 2013;36(7):2009–2014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patton SR and Clements MA. Continuous glucose monitoring versus self-monitoring of blood glucose in children with type 1 diabetes- are there pros and cons for both? US Endocrinol. 2012;8(1):27–29.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ang E, Lee ZX, Moore S, et al. Flash glucose monitoring (FGM): A clinical review on glycaemic outcomes and impact on quality of life. J Diabetes Complications. 2020;34(6):107559.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klonoff DC. Improved outcomes from diabetes monitoring: the benefits of better adherence, therapy adjustments, patient education, and telemedicine support. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2012;6(3):486–490.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Carlson AL, Mullen DM, and Bergenstal RM. Clinical use of continuous glucose monitoring in adults with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2017;19(S2):S4–S11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monnier L, Lapinski H, and Colette C. Contributions of fasting and postprandial plasma glucose increments to the overall diurnal hyperglycemia of type 2 diabetic patients: variations with increasing levels of HbA1c. Diabetes Care. 2003;26(3):881-885.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ceriello A,  Hanefeld M, Leiter L,et al. Postprandial glucose regulation and diabetic complications. Arch Intern Med. 2004;164:2090–2095.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Færch K, Alssema M, Mela DJ, et al. Relative contributions of preprandial and postprandial glucose exposures, glycemic variability, and non-glycemic factors to HbA 1c in individuals with and without diabetes. Nutr Diabetes. 2018;8(1):38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Battelino T, Danne T, Bergenstal RM, et al. Clinical targets for continuous glucose monitoring data interpretation: recommendations from the international consensus on time in range. Diabetes Care. 2019;42(8):1593–1603.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monnier L, Colette C, Wojtusciszyn A, et al. Toward defining the threshold between low and high glucose variability in diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2017;40(7):832–838.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodbard D. Hypo- and hyperglycemia in relation to the mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, and nature of the glucose distribution. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2012;14(10):868–876.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandran SR, Tay WL, Lye WK, et al. Beyond HbA1c: comparing glycemic variability and glycemic indices in predicting hypoglycemia in type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2018;20(5):353–362.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu J, Ma X, Zhou J,et al. Association of Time in Range, as Assessed by Continuous Glucose Monitoring, With Diabetic Retinopathy in Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2018;41(11):2370–2376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck RW, Bergenstal RM, Riddlesworth TD, et al. Validation of time in range as an outcome measure for diabetes clinical trials. Diabetes Care. 2019;42(3):400–405.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck RW, Bergenstal RM, Cheng P, et al. The Relationships Between Time in Range, Hyperglycemia Metrics, and HbA1c. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2019;13(4):614–626.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vigersky RA and McMahon C. The relationship of hemoglobin A1C to time-in-range in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2019;21(2):81–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen M, Han J, Spanakis EK, et al. A Review of Continuous Glucose Monitoring-Based Composite Metrics for Glycemic Control. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2020;22(8):613–622.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirsch IB, Balo AK, Sayer K, et al. A simple composite metric for the assessment of glycemic status from continuous glucose monitoring data: implications for clinical practice and the artificial pancreas. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2017;19(S3):S38–S48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazze RS, Lucido D, Langer O,  et al. Ambulatory glucose profile: representation of verified self-monitored blood glucose data. Diabetes Care. 1987;10(1):111-117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson ML, Martens TW, Criego AB, et al. Utilizing the ambulatory glucose profile to standardize and implement continuous glucose monitoring in clinical practice. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2019;21(S2):S217–S225.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danne T, Nimri R, Battelino T, et al. International consensus on use of continuous glucose monitoring. Diabetes Care. 2017;40(12):1631–1640.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Diabetes Association. 7. Diabetes technology: standards of medical care in diabetes-2020. Diabetes Care. 2020;43(Suppl 1):S77–S88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeVries JH. Glucose variability: where it is important and how to measure it. Diabetes. 2013;62(5):1405–1408.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeVries JH, Meneghini L, Barnett AH, et al. A patient-level analysis of efficacy and hypoglycaemia outcomes across treat-to-target trials with insulin glargine added to oral antidiabetes agents in people with type 2 diabetes. Eur Endocrinol. 2014;10(1):23–30.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• American Diabetes Association. 8. Pharmacologic Approaches to Glycemic Treatment. Diabetes Care. 2017;40(Suppl 1):S64–S74.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vigersky RA, Fonda SJ, Chellappa M, et al. Short- and long-term effects of real-time continuous glucose monitoring in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2012;35(1):32–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck RW, Riddlesworth TD, Ruedy K, et al. Continuous glucose monitoring versus usual care in patients with type 2 diabetes receiving multiple daily insulin injections: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2017;167(6):365–374.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoo HJ, An HG, Park SY, et al. Use of a real time continuous glucose monitoring system as a motivational device for poorly controlled type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2008;82(1):73–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen NA, Fain JA, Braun B, et al. Continuous glucose monitoring counseling improves physical activity behaviors of individuals with type 2 diabetes: A randomized clinical trial. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2008;80(3):371–379.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ajjan RA, Jackson N, Thomson SA. Reduction in HbA1c using professional flash glucose monitoring in insulin-treated type 2 diabetes patients managed in primary and secondary care settings: A pilot, multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Diab Vasc Dis Res. 2019;16(4):385–395.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haak T, Hanaire H, Ajjan R, et al. Flash glucose-sensing technology as a replacement for blood glucose monitoring for the management of insulin-treated type 2 diabetes: a multicenter, open-label randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Ther. 2017;8(1):55–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yaron M, Roitman E, Aharon-Hananel G, et al. Effect of flash glucose monitoring technology on glycemic control and treatment satisfaction in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2019;42(7):1178–1184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar