Regional invertebrate cross- and within-taxon surrogacy are scale and taxon dependent

References

• Agosti, D., Majer, J. D., Alonso, L. E. & Schultz, T. T. 2000. Ants: Standard Methods for Measuring and Monitoring Biodiversity. Smithsonian Institution, Washington.
   Google Scholar
• Andersen, A.N. 1995. Measuring more of biodiversity: genus richness as a surrogate for species richness in Australian ant faunas. Biological Conservation 73(1): 39–43.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azarkina, G.N. & Foord, S.H. 2013. Redescriptions of poorly known species of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae) from South Africa and Namibia. Zootaxa 3686(2): 165–182.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Báldi, A. 2003. Using higher taxa as surrogates of species richness: a study based on 3700 Coleoptera, Diptera, and Acari species in Central-Hungarian reserves. Basic and Applied Ecology 4(6): 589–593.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton, P.S., Manning, A.D., Gibb, H., Lindenmayer, D.B. & Cunningham, S.A. 2010. Fine-scale heterogeneity in beetle assemblages under co-occurring Eucalyptus in the same subgenus. Journal of Biogeography 37(10): 1927–1937.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton, P.S., Westgate, M.J., Lane, P.W., MacGregor, C. & Lindenmayer, D.B. 2014. Robustness of habitat-based surrogates of animal diversity: a multitaxa comparison over time. Journal of Applied Ecology 51(5): 1434–1443.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonn, A., Rodrigues, A.S. & Gaston, K.J. 2002. Threatened and endemic species: are they good indicators of patterns of biodiversity on a national scale? Ecology Letters 5(6): 733–741.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cardoso, P., Silva, I., de Oliveira, N.G. & Serrano, A.R. 2004. Higher taxa surrogates of spider (Araneae) diversity and their efficiency in conservation. Biological Conservation 117(4): 453–459.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castagneyrol, B. & Jactel, H. 2012. Unraveling plant–animal diversity relationships: a meta-regression analysis. Ecology 93(9): 2115–2124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiarucci, A., D’auria, F., De Dominicis, V., Laganà, A., Perini, C. & Salerni, E. 2005. Using vascular plants as a surrogate taxon to maximize fungal species richness in reserve design. Conservation Biology 19(5):1644–1652.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clausnitzer, V., Kalkman, V.J., Ram, M., Collen, B., Baillie, J.E., Bedjanič, M., Darwall, W.R., Dijkstra, K.D.B., Dow, R., Hawking, J. & Karube, H. 2009. Odonata enter the biodiversity crisis debate: the first global assessment of an insect group. Biological Conservation 142(8): 1864–1869.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalerum, F., Somers, M.J., Kunkel, K.E. & Cameron, E.Z. 2008. The potential for large carnivores to act as biodiversity surrogates in southern Africa. Biodiversity and Conservation 17(12): 2939–2949.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, A.L.V., Frolov, A.V. & Scholtz, C.H. 2008. The African Dung Beetle Genera. Protea Book House, Pretoria.
   Google Scholar
• Davis, A.L.V. & Scholtz, C.H. 2001. Historical vs. ecological factors influencing global patterns of scarabaeine dung beetle diversity. Diversity and Distributions 7(4):161–174.
   Google Scholar
• Dippenaar-Schoeman, A.S., Haddad, C.R., Foord, S.H., Lyle, R., Lotz, L.N. & Marais, P. 2015. South African National Survey of Arachnida (SANSA): review of current knowledge, constraints and future needs for documenting spider diversity (Arachnida: Araneae). Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 70(3): 245–275.
   Google Scholar
• Dixon-Bridges, K., Hutchings, P. & Gladstone, W. 2014. Effectiveness of habitat classes as surrogates for biodiversity in marine reserve planning. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 24(4): 463–477.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eckhardt, H.C., Van Wilgen, B.W. & Biggs, H.C. 2000. Trends in woody vegetation cover in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, between 1940 and 1998. African Journal of Ecology 38(2): 108–115.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Endrody-Younga, S. 1988. Revision of the genus Anomalipus Latreille, 1846 (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae: Platynotini). Description of species-group taxa. Transvaal Museum Monographs 6(1): 1–129.
   Google Scholar
• Foord, S.H. & Dippenaar-Schoeman, A.S. 2016. The effect of elevation and time on mountain spider diversity: a view of two aspects in the Cederberg mountains of South Africa. Journal of Biogeography 43(12): 2354–2365.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foord, S.H., Dippenaar-Schoeman, A.S. & Stam, E.M. 2013. Surrogates of spider diversity, leveraging the conservation of a poorly known group in the Savanna Biome of South Africa. Biological Conservation 161: 203–212.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foord, S.H., Dippenaar-Schoeman, A.S. & Van der Merwe, M. 2002. A check list of the spider fauna of the Western Soutpansberg, South Africa (Arachnida: Araneae). Koedoe 45(2): 35–43.
   Google Scholar
• Foord, S.H., Mafadza, M.M., Dippenaar-Schoeman, A.S. & Van Rensburg, B.J. 2008. Micro-scale heterogeneity of spiders (Arachnida: Araneae) in the Soutpansberg, South Africa: a comparative survey and inventory in representative habitats. African Zoology 43(2): 156–174.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fraser, S.E., Beresford, A.E., Peters, J., Redhead, J.W., Welch, A.J., Mayhew, P.J. & Dytham, C. 2009. Effectiveness of vegetation surrogates for parasitoid wasps in reserve selection. Conservation Biology, 23(1):142–150.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerlach, J., Samways, M. & Pryke, J. 2013. Terrestrial invertebrates as bioindicators: an overview of available taxonomic groups. Journal of Insect Conservation 17(4): 831–850.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Germishuizen, G. & Meyer, N.L. (Eds.). 2003. Plants of Southern Africa: An Annotated Checklist. Strelitzia 14. Pretoria, National Botanical Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Grantham, H.S., Pressey, R.L., Wells, J.A. & Beattie, A.J. 2010. Effectiveness of biodiversity surrogates for conservation planning: different measures of effectiveness generate a kaleidoscope of variation. PLoS One 5(7): p.e11430
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haddad, C.R. 2009. Vendaphaea, a new dark sac spider genus apparently endemic to the Soutpansberg Mountains, South Africa (Araneae: Corinnidae). African Invertebrates 50(2): 269–278.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haddad, N.M., Tilman, D., Haarstad, J., Ritchie, M. & Knops, J.M. 2001. Contrasting effects of plant richness and composition on insect communities: a field experiment. The American Naturalist 158(1): 17–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hahn, N. 2007. Floristic diversity of the Soutpansberg, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Pretoria.
   Google Scholar
• Hahn, N. 2011. Refinement of the Soutpansberg Geomorphic Province, Limpopo, South Africa. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 66(1): 32–40.
   Google Scholar
• Hahn, N. 2018. An historic account of the extinct high rainfall grasslands of the Soutpansberg, South Africa. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 73(1): 20–32.
   Google Scholar
• Hahn, N. 2019. Indigenous vascular plants of the Soutpansberg, South Africa. Bothalia. African Biodiversity and Conservation, in press.
   Google Scholar
• Hamer, M.L. 1998. Checklist of Southern African millipedes (Myriapoda: Diplopoda). Annals of the Natal Museum 39(1): 11–82.
   Google Scholar
• Hammer, Ø. & Harper, D.A.T. 2006. Paleontological Data Analysis. Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Heino, J. & Soininen, J. 2007. Are higher taxa adequate surrogates for species-level assemblage patterns and species richness in stream organisms? Biological Conservation 137(1): 78–89.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hermoso, V., Januchowski-Hartley, S.R. & Pressey, R.L. 2013. When the suit does not fit biodiversity: loose surrogates compromise the achievement of conservation goals. Biological Conservation 159: 197–205.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulshof, C.M., Violle, C., Spasojevic, M.J., McGill, B., Damschen, E., Harrison, S. & Enquist, B.J. 2013. Intra-specific and inter-specific variation in specific leaf area reveal the importance of abiotic and biotic drivers of species diversity across elevation and latitude. Journal of Vegetation Science 24(5): 921–931.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, M.R., Van Vuuren, C.J., Hegenberger, W.F., Key, R. & Show, U. 1996. Stratigraphy of the Karoo Supergroup in southern Africa: an overview. Journal of African Earth Sciences 23(1): 3–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joseph, G.S., Seymour, C.L., Cumming, G.S., Cumming, D.H. & Mahlangu, Z. 2014. Termite mounds increase functional diversity of woody plants in African savannas. Ecosystems 17(5): 808–819.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamiński, M.J. & Iwan, D. 2013. Taxonomy, distribution and ecological niche models of the Afrotropical platynotoid Platynotina (Tenebrionidae: Pedinini). Annales Zoologici 63(4): 653–733.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamiński, M.J. & Ras, M. 2012. Catalogue, geographic distribution and ecological niche models of the melanocratoid Platynotina (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae: Pedinini). Annales Zoologici 62(2): 227–243.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kati, V., Devillers, P., Dufrêne, M., Legakis, A., Vokou, D. & Lebrun, P. 2004. Testing the value of six taxonomic groups as biodiversity indicators at a local scale. Conservation Biology 18(3): 667–675.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirkman, L.K., Smith, L.L., Quintana-Ascencio, P.F., Kaeser, M.J., Golladay, S.W. & Farmer, A.L. 2012. Is species richness congruent among taxa? Surrogacy, complementarity, and environmental correlates among three disparate taxa in geographically isolated wetlands. Ecological Indicators 18: 131–139.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koch, B., Edwards, P.J., Blanckenhorn, W.U., Buholzer, S., Walter, T., Wüest, R.O. & Hofer, G. 2013. Vascular plants as surrogates of butterfly and grasshopper diversity on two Swiss subalpine summer pastures. Biodiversity and Conservation, 22(6–7): 1451–1465.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koch, C. 1962. The Tenebrionidae of southern Africa. XXXI. Comprehensive notes on the tenebrionid fauna of the Namib Desert. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 24: 61–106.
   Google Scholar
• Koch, S.O., Chown, S.L., Davis, A.L.V., Endrödy-Younga, S. & Van Jaarsveld, A.S. 2000. Conservation strategies for poorly surveyed taxa: a dung beetle (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae) case study from southern Africa. Journal of Insect Conservation, 4(1): 45–56.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leal, I.R., Bieber, A.G.D., Tabarelli, M. & Andersen, A.N. 2010. Biodiversity surrogacy: indicator taxa as predictors of total species richness in Brazilian Atlantic forest and Caatinga. Biodiversity and Conservation 19(12): 3347–3360.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewandowski, A.S., Noss, R.F. & Parsons, D.R. 2010. The effectiveness of surrogate taxa for the representation of biodiversity. Conservation Biology 24(5): 1367–1377.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin, S., You, M.S., Vasseur, L., Yang, G., Liu, F.J. & Guo, F. 2012. Higher taxa as surrogates of species richness of spiders in insect-resistant transgenic rice. Insect Science 19(3): 419–425.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovell, S., Hamer, M., Slotow, R. & Herbert, D. 2007. Assessment of congruency across invertebrate taxa and taxonomic levels to identify potential surrogates. Biological Conservation 139(1): 113–125.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maccherini, S., Bacaro, G., Favilli, L., Piazzini, S., Santi, E. & Marignani, M. 2009. Congruence among vascular plants and butterflies in the evaluation of grassland restoration success. Acta Oecologica 35(2): 311–317.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manning, J. & Goldblatt, P. 2012. Plants of the Greater Cape Floristic Region 1: the Core Cape Flora. Sterlitzia 29. Pretoria, South African National Biodiversity Institute.
   Google Scholar
• McCarthy, T. & Rubidge, B. 2005. The Story of Earth & Life: A Southern Africa Perspective on a 4.6-Billion-Year Journey. Penguin Random House, Cape Town, South Africa.
   Google Scholar
• Mecenero, S. 2013. Conservation Assessment of Butterflies of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland: Red List and Atlas. University of Cape Town: Saftronics (Pty). Cape Town, South Africa.
   Google Scholar
• Moore, J.L., Balmford, A., Brooks, T., Burgess, N.D., Hansen, L.A., Rahbek, C. & Williams, P.H. 2003. Performance of sub-Saharan vertebrates as indicator groups for identifying priority areas for conservation. Conservation Biology 17(1): 207–218.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mucina, L. & Rutherford, M.C. 2006. The Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Pretoria, South African National Biodiversity Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Munyai, T.C. & Foord, S.H. 2015. Temporal patterns of ant diversity across a mountain with climatically contrasting aspects in the tropics of Africa. PLOS One 10(3): p.e0122035.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parr, C.L., Lehmann, C.E., Bond, W.J., Hoffmann, W.A. & Andersen, A.N. 2014. Tropical grassy biomes: misunderstood, neglected, and under threat. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 29(4): 205–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pool-Stanvliet, R. 2013. A history of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme in South Africa. South African Journal of Science 109(9–10): 1–6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahagalala, P., Viljanen, H., Hottola, J. & Hanski, I. 2009. Assemblages of dung beetles using cattle dung in Madagascar. African Entomology 17(1): 71–89.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodrigues, A.S. & Brooks, T.M. 2007. Shortcuts for biodiversity conservation planning: the effectiveness of surrogates. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 38: 713–737.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rooney, R.C. & Bayley, S.E. 2012. Community congruence of plants, invertebrates and birds in natural and constructed shallow open-water wetlands: do we need to monitor multiple assemblages? Ecological Indicators 20: 42–50.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosser, N. & Eggleton, P. 2012. Can higher taxa be used as a surrogate for species-level data in biodiversity surveys of litter/soil insects? Journal of Insect Conservation 16(1): 87–92.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sætersdal, M., Gjerde, I., Blom, H.H., Ihlen, P.G., Myrseth, E.W., Pommeresche, R., Skartveit, J., Solhøy, T. & Aas, O. 2004. Vascular plants as a surrogate species group in complementary site selection for bryophytes, macrolichens, spiders, carabids, staphylinids, snails, and wood living polypore fungi in a northern forest. Biological Conservation 115(1): 21–31.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santi, E., Maccherini, S., Rocchini, D., Bonini, I., Brunialti, G., Favilli, L., Perini, C., Pezzo, F., Piazzini, S., Rota, E. & Salerni, E. 2010. Simple to sample: vascular plants as surrogate group in a nature reserve. Journal for Nature Conservation 18(1): 2–11.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sauberer, N., Zulka, K.P., Abensperg-Traun, M., Berg, H.M., Bieringer, G., Milasowszky, N., Moser, D., Plutzar, C., Pollheimer, M., Storch, C. & Tröstl, R. 2004. Surrogate taxa for biodiversity in agricultural landscapes of eastern Austria. Biological Conservation 117(2): 181–190.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoeman, C.S. 2019. Ground-dwelling arthropods in a biosphere reserve: patterns of diversity and conservation implications. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Venda.
   Google Scholar
• Schönhofer, A.L. 2008. On harvestmen from the Soutpansberg, South Africa, with description of a new species of Monomontia (Arachnida: Opiliones). African Invertebrates 49(2): 109–126.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spector, S. 2006. Scarabaeine dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae): an invertebrate focal taxon for biodiversity research and conservation. The Coleopterists Bulletin 60(5): 71–83.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, P.J., Sowler, S., Schoeman, M.C. & Monadjem, A. 2013. Diversity of bats in the Soutpansberg and Blouberg Mountains of northern South Africa: complementarity of acoustic and non-acoustic survey methods. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 43(1): 12–26.
   Google Scholar
• Terlizzi, A., Anderson, M.J., Bevilacqua, S., Fraschetti, S., Włodarska-Kowalczuk, M. & Ellingsen, K.E. 2009. Beta diversity and taxonomic sufficiency: do higher-level taxa reflect heterogeneity in species composition? Diversity and Distributions 15(3): 450–458.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tews, J., Brose, U., Grimm, V., Tielbörger, K., Wichmann, M.C., Schwager, M. & Jeltsch, F. 2004. Animal species diversity driven by habitat heterogeneity/diversity: the importance of keystone structures. Journal of Biogeography 31(1): 79–92.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thuiller, W., Midgley, G.F., Rougeti, M. & Cowling, R.M. 2006. Predicting patterns of plant species richness in megadiverse South Africa. Ecography 29(5): 733–744.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tshikae, B.P., Davis, A.L. & Scholtz, C.H. 2008. Trophic associations of a dung beetle assemblage (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) in a woodland savanna of Botswana. Environmental Entomology 37(2): 431–441.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Rensburg, B.J., McGeoch, M.A., Chown, S.L. & Van Jaarsveld, A.S. 1999. Conservation of heterogeneity among dung beetles in the Maputaland Centre of Endemism, South Africa. Biological Conservation 88(2): 145–153.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanreusel, W. & Van Dyck, H. 2007. When functional habitat does not match vegetation types: a resource-based approach to map butterfly habitat. Biological Conservation 135(2): 202–211.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vieira, L.C., Oliveira, N.G., Brewster, C.C. & Gayubo, S.F. 2012. Using higher taxa as surrogates of species-level data in three Portuguese protected areas: a case study on Spheciformes (Hymenoptera). Biodiversity and Conservation 21(13): 3467–3486.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wessels, K.J., Freitag, S.V. & Van Jaarsveld, A.S. 1999. The use of land facets as biodiversity surrogates during reserve selection at a local scale. Biological Conservation 89(1): 21–38.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wharton, M. & Robert, A. 1982. Species composition of and biological notes on Tenebrionidae of the lower Kuiseb River and adjacent gravel plain. Madoqua 13(1): 5–25.
   Google Scholar