The Metabolic Syndrome

References

• Golden S. H., Folsom A. R., Coresh J., Sharrett A. R., Szklo M., Brancati F. Risk factor groupings related to insulin resistance and their synergistic effects on subclinical atherosclerosis: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Diabetes 2002; 51: 3069–76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson P. W. F. Estimating cardiovascular disease risk and the metabolic syndrome: a Framingham view. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 2004; 33: 467–481
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson P. W. F., Kannel W. B., Silbershatz H., D'agostino R. B. Clustering of metabolic factors and coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159: 1104–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yki‐järvinen H. Insulin resistance and endothelial dysfunction. Best Practice & Research Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 17: 411–430
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reaven G. M. Syndrome X. Blood Press 1992; 4s: 13–16
   Google Scholar
• Nestel P. Nutritional aspects in the causation and management of the metabolic syndrome. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 2004; 33: 483–492
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone N. J. Focus on lifestyle change and the metabolic syndrome. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 2004; 33: 493–508
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avogaro P., Crepaldi G., Enzi G., Tiengo A. Associazione di iperlipidemia, diabete mellito e obesità di medio grado. Acta Diabetol Lat 1967; 4: 36–41
   Google Scholar
• Haller H. Epidemiologie und assoziierte Risikofaktoren der Hyperlipoproteinamie [Epidemiology and associated risk factors of hyperlipoproteinemia]. Z Gesamte Inn Med 1977; 32: 124–128
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Singer P. Zur Diagnostik der primären Hyperlipoproteinämien [Diagnosis of primary hyperlipoproteinemias]. Z Gesamte Inn Med 1977; 32: 129–133
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leonhardt W., Hanefeld M., Schneider H., Haller H. Importance of adipose tissue hypertrophy for the pathogenesis of maturity‐onset diabetes. Z Gesamte Inn Med 1975; 30: 52–4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Haller H., Leonhardt W., Moser W., Hanefeld M. Relation of blood pressure to the body weight index and to metabolic parameters. Z Gesamte Inn Med 1973; 28s: 211–3
   Google Scholar
• Haller H., Leonhardt W., Hanefeld M., Julius U. Relationship between adipocyte hypertrophy and metabolic disturbances. Endokrinologie 1979; 74: 63–72
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ferrannini E., Haffner S. M., Mitchell B. D., Stern M. P. Hyperinsulinaemia: the key feature of a cardiovascular and metabolic syndrome. Diabetologia 1991; 34: 416–422
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reaven G. M. Role of insulin resistance in human disease. Diabetes 1988; 37: 1595–1607
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reaven G. M. The Metabolic Syndrome: Requiescat in Pace. Clin Chem 2005, in press
   Google Scholar
• Meigs J. B., D'agostino R. B Sr., Wilson P. W., Cupples L. A., Nathan D. M., Singer D. E. Risk variable clustering in the insulin resistance syndrome: the Framingham Offspring Study. Diabetes 1997; 46: 1594–1600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults: Executive Summary of the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 2001; 285: 2486–2497
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alberti K. G., Zimmet P. Z. Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Part 1: diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus: provisional report of a WHO consultation. Diabet Med 1998; 15: 539–553
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications: report of a WHO Consultation. Part 1: diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1999. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1999/WHO_NCD_NCS_99.2.pdf Accessed December 12, 2003
   Google Scholar
• Balkau B., Charles M. A. Comment on the provisional report from the WHO consultation. European Group for the Study of Insulin Resistance (EGIR). Diabet Med 1999; 16: 442–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford E. S., Giles W. H., Dietz W. H. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among US adults: findings from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. JAMA 2002; 287: 356–359
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meigs J. B., Nathan D. M., Wilson P. W., Cupples L. A., Singer D. E. Metabolic risk factors worsen continuously across the spectrum of nondiabetic glucose tolerance: the Framingham Offspring Study. Ann Intern Med 1998; 128: 524–533
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerstein H. C. Is glucose a continuous risk factor for cardiovascular mortality?. Diabetes Care 1999; 22: 659–660
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feinstein R., Kanety H., Papa M. Z., Lunenfeld B., Karasik A. Tumor necrosis factor‐alpha suppresses insulin‐induced tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin receptor and its substrates. J Bio. Chem 1993; 268: 26055–26058
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pradhan A. D., Manson J. E., Rifai N., Buring J. E., Ridker P. M. C‐reactive protein, interleukin 6, and risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA 2001; 286: 327–334
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spranger J., Kroke A., Mohlig M., Hoffmann K., Bergmann M. M., Ristow M., Boeing H., Pfeiffer A. E. Inflammatory cytokines and the risk to develop type 2 diabetes: results of the prospective population‐based European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)‐Potsdam Study. Diabetes 2003; 52: 812–817
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier U., Gressner A. M. Endocrine regulation of energy metabolism: review of pathobiochemical and clinical chemical aspects of leptin, ghrelin, adiponectin, and resistin. Clin Chem 2004; 50: 1511–25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boden G., Carnell L. H. Nutritional effects of fat on carbohydrate metabolism. Best Practice & Research Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 17: 399–410
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boden G., Shulman G. I. Free fatty acids in obesity and type 2 diabetes: defining their role in the development of insulin resistance and beta‐cell dysfunction. Eur J Clin Invest 2002; 32s: 14–23
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenig W., Löwel H., Baumert J., Meisinger C. C‐reactive protein modulates risk prediction based on the Framingham Score: implications for future risk assessment: results from a large cohort study in southern Germany. Circulation 2004; 109: 1349–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenig W. Fibrin(ogen) in cardiovascular disease: an update. Thromb Haemost 2003; 89: 601–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cai D., Yuan M., Frantz D. F., Melendez P. A., Hansen L., Lee J., Shoelson S. E. Local and systemic insulin resistance resulting from hepatic activation of IKK‐beta and NF‐kB. Nature Med 2005; 11: 193–90
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vozarova B., Stefan N., Lindsay R. S., Krakoff J., Knowler W. C., Funahashi T., Matsuzawa Y., Sturmvoll M., Weyer C., Tataranni P. A. High alanine aminotransferase is associated with decreased hepatic insulin sensitivity and predicts the development of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 2002; 51: 1889–95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanley A. J., Williams K., Festa A., Wagenknecht L. E., D`agostino R. B Jr., Kempf J., Zinman B., Haffner S. M., insulin atherosclerosis study. Elevations in markers of liver injury and risk of type 2 diabetes: the insulin resistance atherosclerosis study. Diabetes 2004; 53: 2623–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akahoshi M., Amasaki Y., Soda M., Tominaga T., Ichimaru S., Nakashima E., Seto S., Yano K. Correlation between fatty liver and coronary risk factors: a population study of elderly men and women in Nagasaki, Japan. Hypertens Res 2001; 24: 337–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim H. J., Kim H. J., Lee K. E., Kim D. J., Kim S. K., Ahn C. W., Lim S. K., Lim K. R., Lee H. C., Huh K. B., Cha B. S. Metabolic significance of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in nonobese, nondiabetic adults. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164: 2169–75
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rowley K., O'dea K., Best J. D. Association of albuminuria and the metabolic syndrome. Curr Diab Rep 2003; 3: 80–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mano T., Masuyama T., Yamamoto K., Naito J., Kondo H., Nagano R., Tanuochi J., Hori M., Inoue M., Kamada T. Endothelial dysfunction in the early stage of atherosclerosis precedes appearance of intimal lesions assessable with intravascular ultrasound. Am Heart J 1996; 131: 231–238
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tooke J. E. Microvascular function in human diabetes: a physiologic perspective. Diabetes 1995; 44: 721–726
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calles‐escandon J., Cipolla M. Diabetes and endothelial dysfunction: a clinical perspective. Endocrine Rev 2001; 22: 36–52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Celermajer D. S., Sorensen K. E., Gooch V. M., Spiegelhalter D. J., Miller O. I., Sullivan I. D., Lloyd J. K., Deanfield J. E. Non‐invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet 1992; 340: 1111–1115
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trayhurn P., Wood I. S. Adipokines: inflammation and the pleiotropic role of white adipose tissue. Br J Nutr 2004; 92: 347–55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satoh N., Naruse M., Usui T., Tagami T., Suganami T., Yamada K., Kuzuya H., Shimatsu A., Ogawa Y. Leptin‐to‐adiponectin ratio as a potential atherogenic index in obese type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 2488–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li W. G., Gavrila D., Liu X., Gunnlaugsson S., Stoll L. L., Mccormick M. I., Sigmund C. D., Tang C., Weintraub N. L. Ghrelin inhibits proinflammatory responses and nuclear factor‐kappaB activation in human endothelial cells. Circulation 2004; 109: 2221–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aldhahi W., Hamdy O. Adipokines, inflammation, and the endothelium in diabetes. Curr Diab Rep 2003; 3: 293–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lyon C. J., Law R. E., Hsueh W. A. Minireview: adiposity, inflammation, and atherogenesis. Endocrinology 2003; 144: 2195–200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamura S., Shimomura I. Contribution of adipose tissue and de novo lipogenesis to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J Clin Invest 2005; 115: 1139–1142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wellen K. E., Hotamisligil G. S. Inflammation, stress, and diabetes. J Clin Invest 2005; 115: 1111–1119
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt K. J., Resendez R. G., Williams K., Haffner S. M., Stern M. P. National Cholesterol Education Program versus World Health Organization metabolic syndrome in relation to all‐cause and cardiovascular mortality in the San Antonio Heart Study. Circulation 2004; 110: 1251–1257
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation 2002; 106: 3143–3221
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conroy R. M., Pyorala K., Fitzgerald A. P., Sans S., Menotti A., De backer G., De bacquer D., Ducimetiere P., Jousilahti P., Keil U., Njolstad I., Organow R. G., Thomsen T., Tunstall‐pedeo H., Tverdal A., Wedel H., Whincup P., Wilhelmsen L., Graham I. M., SCORE project group. Estimation of ten‐year risk of fatal cardiovascular disease in Europe: the SCORE project. Eur Heart J 2003; 24: 987–1003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuomilehto J., Lindstrom J., Eriksson J. G., Valle T. T., Hamalainen H., Ilanne‐parikka P., Keinanen‐kiukaanniemi S., Laakso M., Louheranta A., Rastas M., Salminen V., Uusitupa M., Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study Group. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 1343–50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knowler W. C., Barrett‐connor E., Fowler S. E., Hamman R. F., Lachin J. M., Walker E. A., Nathan D. M., Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 393–403
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmet P., Shaw J., Alberti K. G. Preventing Type 2 diabetes and the dysmetabolic syndrome in the real world: a realistic view. Diabet Med 2003; 20: 693–702
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Randle P. J., Garland P. B., Hales C. N., Newsholme E. A. The glucose fatty‐acid cycle: its role in insulin sensitivity and the metabolic disturbances of diabetes mellitus. Lancet 1963; i: 785–789
   Google Scholar
• Xydakis A. M., Ballantyne C. M. Management of metabolic syndrome: statins. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 2004; 33: 509–523
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shields T. M., Hennekens C. H. Management of metabolic syndrome: aspirin. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 2004; 33: 577–593
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Einhorn D., Aroda V. R., Henry R. R. Glitazones and the management of insulin resistance: what they do and how might they be used. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 2004; 33: 595–616
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar