Community Spread of Legionella pneumophila Serogroup 1 in Temporal Relation to a Nosocomial Outbreak

REFERENCES

• Chow JW, Yu VL. Legionella: A major opportunistic pathogen in transplant patients. Semin Respir Infect 1998; 13: 132–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schlossberg D, Bonoan J. Legionella and immunosuppression. Semin Respir Infect 1998; 13: 128–31.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tkatch LS, Kusne S, Irish WD, Krystofiak S, Wing E. Epidemiology of legionella pneumonia and factors associated with legionella-related mortality at a tertiary care center. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 27: 1479–86.
   Google Scholar
• O’Manony MC, Stanvell-Smith RE, Tillett HE, Harper D, Hutchinson JGP, Farrell ID, et al. The Stafford outbreak of legionnaires’ disease. Epidemiol Infect 1990; 104: 361–80.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Colville A, Crowley J, Dearden D, Slack RC, Lee JV. Outbreak of legionnaires’ disease at University Hospital Nottingham. Epidemiology, microbiology and control. Epidemiol Infect 1993; 110: 105–16.
   Google Scholar
• Darelid J, Bengtsson L, Gästrin B, Hallander H, Löfgren S, Malmvall BE, et al. An outbreak of legionnaires’ disease in a Swedish hospital. Scand J Infect Dis 1994; 26: 417–25.
   Google Scholar
• Bornstein N, Marmet D, Surgot M, Nowicki M, Arslan A, Esteve J, et al. Exposure to Legionellaceae at a hot spring spa: a prospective clinical and serological study. Epidemiol Infect 1989; 102: 31–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reinthaler F, Mascher F, Stunzer D. Legionella pneumophila: seroepidemiologic studies of dentists and dental personnel in Austria. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg 1987; 185: 164–70.
   Google Scholar
• Muraca PW, Stout JE, Yu VL, Yee YC. Legionnaires’ disease in the work environment: implications for environmental health. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1988; 49: 584–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breiman RF, Butler JC. Legionnaires’ disease: clinical, epidemiological and public health perspectives. Semin Respir Infect 1998; 13: 84–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hanrahan JP, Morse DL, Scharf VB, Debbie JG, Schmid GP, McKinney RM, et al. A community hospital outbreak of legionellosis. Am J Epidemiol 1987; 125: 639–49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breiman RF, Fields BS, Sanden GN, Volmer LJ, Meier A, Spika JS. Association of shower use with legionnaires disease: possible role of amoebae. JAMA 1990; 263: 2924–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernander S, Gastrin B, Lofgren S, Olinder-Nielsen AM. Legionella urinary antigen in early disease. Scand J Infect Dis 1994; 26: 777–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edelstein PH. Comparative study of selective media for isolation of Legionella pneumophila from potable water. J Clin Microbiol 1982; 16: 697–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saravolatz L, Arking L, Wentworth B, Quinn E. Prevalence of antibody to the legionnaires’ disease bacterium in hospital employees. Ann Intern Med 1979; 90: 601–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boldur I, Ergaz M, Mor G, Kazak R, Pik A, Sompolinsky D. Exposure to legionella in geriatric institutions. Isr J Med Sci 1986; 22: 728–32.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Forsgren A, Kallings I. Antibodies to legionella pneumophila and other legionella species among Swedish blood donors vary according to time and geographical location. Current chemotherapy and immunotherapy. Proceedings of the 13th International Congress of Chemotherapy, Vienna, 28 August- 2 September, 1983.
   Google Scholar
• Bhopal RS. Geographical variation of legionnaires’ disease: a critique and guide to future research. Int J Epidemiol 1993; 22: 1127–36.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goetz AM, Stout JE, Jacobs SL, Fisher MA, Ponzer RE, Drenning S, et al. Nosocomial legionnaires’ disease discovered in community hospitals following cultures of the water system: seek and ye shall find. Am J Infect Control 1998; 26: 8–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Straus WL, Plouffe JF, File TM, Jr, Lipman HB, Hackman BH, Salstrom SJ, et al. Risk factors for domestic acquisition of legionnaires’ disease. Ohio legionnaires’ disease group. Arch Intern Med 1996; 156: 1685–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedro-Botet ML, Sabria-Leal M, Haro M, Rubio C, Gimenez G, Sopena N, et al. Nosocomial and community-acquired legionella pneumonia: clinical comparative analysis. Eur Respir J 1995; 11: 1929–33.
   Google Scholar
• Friedman H, Yamamoto Y, Newton C, Klein T. Immunologic response and pathophysiology of legionella infection. Semin Respir Infect 1998; 13: 100–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Edelstein PH, McKinney RM, Meyer RD, Edelstein MA, Krause CJ, Finegold SM. Immunologic diagnosis of legionnaires’ disease: cross-reactions with anaerobic and mi- croaerophilic organisms and infections caused by them. J Infect Dis 1990; 141: 652–5.
   Google Scholar
• Marshall LE, Boswell TC, Kudesia G. False positive legionella serology in campylobacter infection: campylobacter serotypes, duration of antibody response and elimination of cross-reactions in the indirect fluorescent antibody test. Epidemiol Infect 1994; 112: 547–57.
   Google Scholar
• Rogers J, Doowsett AB, Dennis PJ, Lee JV, Keevil CW. Influence of temperature and plumbing material selection on biofilm formation and growth of legionella pneumophila in a model potable water system containing complex microbial flora. Appl Environ Microbiol 1994; 60: 1585–92.
   Google Scholar
• Poshni IA, Millian SJ. Seroepidemiology of legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 in healthy residents of New York City. NY State J Med 1985; 85: 10–4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Edson DC, Stiefel HE, Wentworth BB, Wilson DL. Prevalence of antibodies to legionnaires’ disease. A seroepidemiologic survey of Michigan residents using the hemagglutination test. Ann Intern Med 1979; 90: 691–3.
   Google Scholar
• Marston BJ, Plouffe JF, File TM, Hackman BA, Salstrom SJ, Lipman HB, et al. Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalisation. Arch Intern Med 1997; 157: 1709–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Örtquist Å, Hedlund J, Grillner L, Jalonen E, Kallings I, Leinonen M, et al. Aetiology, outcome and prognostic factors in community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalisation. Eur Respir J 1990; 3: 1105–13.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Epidemiology, prevention and control of legionellosis: Memorandum from a WHO meeting. Bull World Health Organ 1990; 68: 155–64.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bell JC, Jorm LR, Williamson M, Shaw NH, Kazandjian DL, Chiew R, et al. Legionellosis linked with a hotel car park: how many were infected? Epidemiol Infect 1996; 116: 185–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borella P, Bargellini A, Pergolizzi S, Aggazotti G, Curti C, Nizzero P, et al. Surveillance of legionellosis within a hospital in northern Italy: May to September 1999. Eurosurveillance 1999; 4: 118–20.
   Google Scholar