- This paper was presented in abridged form before the Germanic section of the Modern Language Association in Chicago, 1946, and at the summer meeting of the Linguistic Society at Ann Arbor, 1947.
- Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris 37.19 (1936).
- Kretschmer cited and quoted by Alfredo Trombetti, Elementi di glottologia (Bologna 1923) 231 and by G. Royen, Die nominalen Klassifikationssysteme in den Sprachen der Erde (Vienna-Mödling 1929) 785.
- P. Schäfer, Die kindliche Entwicklungsstufe des reinen Sprachverständnisses nach ihrer Abgrenzung, Zeitschrift für pädagogische Psychologie 22.319 (1921).
- W. F. Leopold, Speech development of a bilingual child, vol. 1, Vocabulary growth in the first two years (1939); vol. 2, Sound-learning in the first two years (1947), Evanston, Northwestern University Studies in the Humanities, nos. 6 and 11. Volumes 3 and 4 are ready for publication.
- Cp. my 1.42 f., 101 f., 170.
- Dietrich Tiedemann, Beobachtungen über die Entwicklung der Seelenfähigkeiten bei Kindern. New edition by Ufer (Altenburg 1897); cf. A. Jakobskötter, Die Psychologie Dietrich Tiedemanns, diss. (Erlangen 1898). Observations sur le développement des facultés de l'âme chez les enfants (translated by H. Michelant), Journal Général de l'Instruction Publique 1863.251, 291, 309, 319; Bernard Perez, Thierry Tiedemann et la science de l'enfant (Paris 1881). Tiedemann's record of infant-life; an English version of the French translation and commentary by Bernard Perez, with notes, by F. L. Solden (1877; Syracuse, N. Y. 1890); cf. C. Murchison and S. Langer, Tiedemann's observations on the development of the mental faculties of children, Pedagogical Seminary 34.205–30 (1927).
- Friedrich Heinrich Christian Schwarz, Erziehungslehre (Leipzig 1802–13, 4 vols.; second edition 1829–30, 3 vols.); cf. Friedrich Richter, Die Entwicklung der psychologischen Kindersprachforschung (Münster 1927) 8 f.
- Heinrich Feldmann, De statu normali functionum corporis humani (diss. Bonn 1833); cf. Preyer (see note 27) vol. 2.248 f.
- Berthold Sigismund, Kind und Welt (Braunschweig 1856; new ed. by Chr. Ufer, Braunschweig 1897; by Karl Markscheffel, Langensalza 1900).
- Adolf Kussmaul, Untersuchungen über das Seelenleben des neugeborenen Menschen (1859, third edition 1896); Die Störungen der Sprache (1877, fourth ed. 1910). Karl von Vierordt, Die Sprache des Kindes, Deutsche Revue 3.29–46 (1879); Sprechen, Gerhardt's Handbuch der Kinderkrankheiten 1.454–7 (1881).
- J. E. Löbisch, Entwicklungsgeschichte der Seele des Kindes (Wien 1851, 1854).
- I. A. Sikorsky, Du développement du langage chez les enfants, Archives de Neurologie 1883 and 1884; Die Seele des Kindes (Leipzig 1902, second ed. 1908); cf. also Hermann Gutzmann, Des Kindes Sprache und Sprachfehler (Leipzig 1894, second ed. 1931), a good, practical, popular handbook for speech hygiene, written by a professor of medicine who was an expert physiological phonetician. Otherwise, I consider matters of speech pathology and therapeutics outside the scope of my survey. For bibliography concerning aphasia, see Jakobson's book of 1941 (note 79) and the references given there on p. 78, note 1. Jakobson also includes works in Slavic languages and refers, in the same note, to sources for Slavic and Japanese bibliography. The present paper only covers contributions written in Germanic and Romance languages.
- Carl Franke, Sprachentwicklung der Kinder und der Menschheit, W. Rein's Encyclopädisches Handbuch der Pädagogik 6.751–94 (1899), 8.742–90 (second ed. 1908); cp. Über die erste Lautstufe der Kinder, Anthropos 7.663–76 (1912). According to Stern (see note 51) 7 note 1, Franke was a linguist.
- Ludwig Strümpell, Psychologische Pädagogik (Leipzig 1880); appendix 352–68: Notizen über die geistige Entwickelung eines weiblichen Kindes während der ersten zwei Lebensjahre.
- Charles Darwin, A biographical sketch of an infant, Mind 2.285–94 (1877); German translation: Kosmos 1 (1877) and Gesammelte kleinere Schriften 2.145 ff. (1886).
- H. Taine, De l'acquisition du langage chez des enfants et dans l'espèce humaine, De l'intelligence (Paris 1870; twelfth ed. 1912) 1.357 ff.; German translation, Der Verstand 1.283 ff. (1880); cp. M. Taine on the acquisition of language by children, Mind 2.252–9 (1871); Note sur l'acquisition du langage chez les enfants et les peuples primitifs, Revue Philosophique 1.3–23 (1876).
- G. J. Romanes, Mental evolution in man (London. 1888, New York 1889); L'évolution mentale chez l'homme (Paris 1891); Die geistige Entwicklung beim Menschen (Leipzig 1893).
- Romanes 240 (English edition).
- James Mark Baldwin, Mental development in the child and in the race (New York 1895; third ed. 1906); Le développement mental chez l'enfant et dans la race (Paris 1897); Die Entwicklung des Geistes beim Kinde und bei der Rasse (Berlin 1898); cf. Richter (see note 10) 29, 84 f.
- F. H. Allport, Social psychology (New York [1924]); cp. M. M. Lewis (see note 58) 59, 79.
- Leonard Bloomfield, Language (New York 1933) 29–31, 512.
- Bernard Perez, La psychologie de l'enfant; les trois premières années (Paris 1878; seventh ed. 1911); The first three years of childhood (London 1885, Chicago 1885, Syracuse N. Y. 1889); continuations of the study (Paris 1886 and 1888); cp. his account of Tiedemann (note 7).
- W. Preyer, Die Seele des Kindes (Leipzig 1882; ninth edition 1923); The mind of the child (New York 1888–1890, 2 vols.); L'âme de l'enfant, traduit de l'anglais (Paris 1887); other editions and extracts in German and English. My references are to the English edition, second volume (1890).
- For example from Ament, Meumann, Idelberger.
- Cf. Karl Bühler (see note 54), fifth ed. 52 f.
- E. S. Holden, On the vocabularies of children under two years of age, Transactions American Philological Association 8.58–68 (1877); summarized by Preyer 2.252–5 (English edition), who includes several other published and unpublished records in his book.
- For example M. R. Heilig, A child's vocabulary, Pedagogical Seminary 20.1–16 (1913); W. G. Bateman, A child's progress in speech, Journal of Educational Psychology 5.307–20 (1914); Two children's progress in speech, same journal 6.475–93 (1915); C. L. and B. I. Hull, Parallel learning curves of an infant in vocabulary and in voluntary control of the bladder, Pedagogical Seminary 26.272–83 (1919).
- Fritz Schultze, Die Sprache des Kindes (Leipzig 1880).
- G. Compayré, L'évolution intellectuelle et morale de l'enfant (Paris 1893).
- Emile Egger, Observations et réflexions sur le développement de l'intelligence et du langage chez les enfants (Paris 1879; fifth ed. 1887); Beobachtungen und Betrachtungen über die Entwicklung der Intelligenz und der Sprache bei Kindern (Leipzig 1903).
- F. Pollock, An infant's progress in language, Mind 3.392–401 (1878). Pollock, a jurist, took notes on the linguistic development of a girl during her first 23 months, following the example of Darwin and Taine, at first for his own amusement. Although he has ‘no pretensions to skill in phonetics,’ he uses at least a consistent phonetic notation. His account is very incomplete and phonetically not satisfactory, but it is sober and deserves attention as a good early contribution.
- Cp. Richter (see note 8) 88.
- The intellectual and moral development of the child (New York 1896–1902, 2 vols.). Die Entwicklung der Kindesseele, translated from the second French edition (Altenburg 1900, second ed. 1924). La evolución intelectual y moral del niño (Madrid 1905).
- James Sully, Studies of childhood (New York-London 1896, re-issue 1900, new editions 1903, 1908); Untersuchungen über die Kindheit (Leipzig 1897, second ed. 1904); Etudes sur l'enfance (Paris 1898).
- Wilhelm Wundt, Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie (1874, fourth ed. 1893, 2 vols.); Die Sprache und das Denken, Essays (Leipzig 1885, second ed. 1906) 269–317.
- Cf. Richter (see note 8) 15.
- H. A. Idelberger, Hauptprobleme der kinderlichen Sprachentwicklung, nach eigenen Beobachtungen behandelt (Zürich diss., Berlin n. d. [1903?]), also Zeitschrift für pädagogische Psychologie 5.241–97, 425–56 (1903–4).
- G. Stanley Hall, The contents of children's minds on entering school, and Notes on the study of infants, Pedagogical Seminary 1.127–38 and 139–73 (1891). Language incidentally.
- John Dewey, The psychology of infant language, Psychological Review 1.63–6 (1894). Observations inspired by Tracy and Romanes.
- Alexander Francis Chamberlain, The child (London 1900, New York 1901); Notes on Indian child-language, American Anthropologist 3.237–41 (1890), 6.321 f. (1893); Preterite-forms, etc., in the language of English-speaking children, Modern Language Notes 21.42–4 (1906); id. and Isabel C. Chamberlain, Studies of a child, Pedagogical Seminary 11.264–91, 452–83 (1904), 12.427–53 (1905), 16.64–103 (1909).
- Frederick Tracy, The psychology of childhood (Boston 1893; seventh ed. 1909); Psychologie der Kindheit (Leipzig 1899; fourth ed. 1912).
- Wilhelm Ament, Die Entwicklung von Sprechen und Denken beim Kinde (Leipzig 1899, reprint 1912).
- By Meumann and by Lindner, for example.
- By Karl Bühler.
- Cp. Stern (see note 51) 5.
- Wilhelm Wundt, Völkerpsychologie, vol. 1, Die Sprache, part 1 (Leipzig 1900; third edition 1911) 284–319 (fourth ed. 1921).
- E. Meumann, Die Entstehung der ersten Wortbedeutungen beim Kinde, Wundt's Philosophische Studien 20.152–214 (1902); also separately (Leipzig 1902, second ed. 1908); Die Sprache des Kindes (Zürich 1903).
- Gustav Lindner, Beobachtungen und Bemerkungen über die Entwicklung der Sprache des Kindes, Kosmos 6.321–42, 430–41 (1882); Zum Studium der Kindersprache, Kosmos 9.161–73, 241–59 (1885); Aus dem Naturgarten der Kindersprache (Leipzig 1898; material collected 1883–7); Neuere Forschungen und Anschauungen über die Sprache des Kindes, Zeitschrift für pädagogische Psychologie 7.377–92 (1906).
- McCarthy calls such studies ‘biographic.’ However, the aspect of growth and development, which would seem to be implied in ‘biographic,’ is often missing.
- Clara und William Stern, Die Kindersprache (Leipzig 1907; fourth ed. 1928). First edition reviewed by A. Meillet, BSLP 16. lxvi.
- Recently the attention of investigators has turned more and more to the early formative phase of language learning. Gesell and Thompson (A. Gesell and H. Thompson, Infant behavior, New York 1934) 234, 245, as quoted by McCarthy (see note 66) 488, complained: ‘In spite of voluminous literature on the subject of children's speech, the ontogenesis of language in the first year of life has had relatively little systematic attention.’ E. Dewey, Infant behavior (New York 1935) 252, quoted by McCarthy 493, speaking about sound learning, said: ‘Before the question can be decided we must have more exact, complex, and phonetically correct records of all sounds made by infants, from the time of birth to the appearance of speech.’ Partial answers to these demands are, among others, Grégoire's book of 1937 (see note 78) and my own volumes of 1939 ff. (see note 5).
- M. V. O'Shea, Linguistic development and education (New York-London 1907).
- Karl Bühler, Die geistige Entwicklung des Kindes (Jena 1918, fifth edition 1929, sixth ed. 1930); The mental development of the child (London-New York 1930).
- Charlotte Bühler, Kindheit und Jugend (Leipzig 1928; third ed. 1931).
- Paul Guillaume, L'imitation chez l'enfant (Paris 1925); Les débuts de la phrase dans le langage de l'enfant, Journal de Psychologie 24.1–25 (1927); Le développement des éléments formels dans le langage de l'enfant, 24.203–29.
- Henri Delacroix, L'activité linguistique de l'enfant, Journal de Psychologie 21.4–17 (1924): Le langage et la pensée, Paris 1924, revised ed. 1930 (especially Livre III, chap. 1); L'enfant et le langage, Paris 1934; also, Le développement du langage chez l'individu, in Georges Dumas, Traité de psychologie (Paris 1924) 2.166–73.
- M. M. Lewis, Infant speech (London 1936).
- Cp. National Society for the Study of Education, 28th yearbook (Bloomington, Ill. 1929) 566: ‘In spite of the fact that the number of published articles dealing with language development is relatively large, the knowledge of the subject is still comparatively meager’; 568: ‘There is need for studies of growth by means of systematic records on the same children from birth thru the preschool period.’
- H. T. Lukens, Preliminary report on the learning of language, Pedagogical Seminary 3.424–60 (1894).
- Ov. Decroly, Comment l'enfant arrive ă parler, no place or date (Brussels 1933).
- Of many publications I mention one: Dorothea A. McCarthy, The language of the preschool child, Minneapolis [1930]; cf. note 66.
- Of many publications, several of them involving bilingualism, I mention one: Madorah E. Smith, An investigation of the development of the sentence and the extent of vocabulary in young children, Iowa City [1926].
- Beth L. Wellman and others, Speech sounds of young children (Iowa City 1931).
- Harold M. Williams, A qualitative analysis of the erroneous speech sound substitutions of preschool children, University of Iowa Studies in Child Welfare 13, no. 2 (Iowa City 1937) and other papers.
- Dorothea McCarthy, Language development in children, in Leonard Carmichael (ed.), Manual of child psychology (New York-London 1946) 476–581. The psychologists have by now accorded the study of child language an important position in the field of child development.
- This was already the complaint of Ament (pp. 11, 26) in 1899. He demanded a field of child linguistics separate from child psychology. Cf. Stern (p. 6, with footnote) in 1907 and 1927.
- August Schleicher, Einige beobachtungen an kindern, Beiträge zur vergleichenden Sprachforschung 2.497 f. (1861); supplement 4.128 (1865).
- M.W. Humphreys, A contribution to infantile linguistic (!), Transactions of the American Philological Association 11.5–17 (1880).
- Gabriel Deville, Notes sur le développement du langage, Revue de Linguistique et de Philologie Comparée 23.330–3 (1890), 24.10–42, 128–43, 242–57, 300–20 (1891).
- Maurice Grammont, Observations sur le langage des enfants, Mélanges linguistiques offerts à M. Antoine Meillet (Paris 1902) 61–82.
- I. A. Gheorgov, Die ersten Anfänge des sprachlichen Ausdrucks für das Selbstbewusstsein bei Kindern, Archiv für die gesamte Psychologie 5.329–404 (1905); also in Sammlung von Abhandlungen zur psychologischen Pädagogik, ed E. Meumann, vol. 2, no. 1 (Leipzig 1905); Ein Beitrag zur grammatischen Entwicklung der Kindersprache, same journal 11.242–432 (1908); also separately (Leipzig 1908); cf. further: Le développement du langage chez l'enfant, Premier congrès international de pédologie tenu a Bruxelles… 1911, Rapports vol. 2 (Ghent 1912).
- Rudolf Meringer, Aus dem Leben der Sprache. Versprechen. Kindersprache. Nachahmungstrieb. Festschrift University of Graz 1906 (Berlin 1908) 113–20, 145–230.
- Otto Jespersen, Nutidssprog hos børn og voxne (Copenhagen 1916); also Børnesprog (1923); Sproget: barnet, kvinden, slægten (1941). Otto Jespersen, Language; its nature, development, and origin (London-New York 1922).
- Oscar Bloch, Notes sur le langage de l'enfant, Mémoires de la Société de Linguistique de Paris 18.37–59 (1913); Les premiers stades du langage de l'enfant, Journal de Psychologie 18.693–712 (1921); Language d'action dans les premiers stades du langage de l'enfant, same journal 20.670–2 (1923); La phrase dans le langage de l'enfant, same journal 21.18–43 (1924).
- Marcel Cohen, Sur les langages successifs de l'enfant, Mélanges linguistiques… J. Vendryes (Paris 1925) 109–27; A propos de la troisième personne du féminin au pluriel en français, Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris 27.201–8 (1927); Observations sur les dernières persistances du langage enfantin, Journal de Psychologie 30.300–9 (1933).
- Leonard Bloomfield, Language (New York 1933).
- A. Grégoire, L'apprentissage de la parole pendant les deux premières années de l'enfance, Journal de Psychologie 30.375–89 (1933). Antoine Grégoire, L'apprentissage du langage; les deux premières années (Liège-Paris 1937); a second volume appeared in 1947. The book was hailed enthusiastically by the reviewer Adolf Busemann, in Zeitschrift für Psychologie 146.189 f. (1939), as a new beginning in child-language research.
- Roman Jakobson, Le développement du langage enfantin et les cohérences correspondantes dans les langues du monde, Cinquième-Congrès International des Linguistes, Résumés des communications (Bruges 1939); Kindersprache, Aphasie und allgemeine Lautgesetze (Uppsala 1941).
- H. V. Velten, The growth of phonemic and lexical patterns in infant language, Language 19.281–92 (1943).
- Bloomfield 46. Child language shares with slow-motion pictures the accessibility to minute observation. As far as the rate of progress is concerned, child language is rather a fast-motion picture of linguistic development.
- Grammont (see note 71) 61.
- Bloomfield 326, 328.
- Bloomfield 46.
- Cp. Hermann Paul, Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte (Halle, fifth ed. 1920) 187; Stern 7.
- Guillaume, Les débuts de la phrase (see note 56) 1.
- Perhaps the chief exponent of the attempt to utilize the language learning of small children for speculations about the language learning of mankind is Carl Franke (1899; see note 14). Hermann Gutzmann (cp. note 13) compares the learning of children and primitive peoples in Die Sprachlaute des Kindes und der Naturvölker, Zeitschrift für pädagogische Psychologie 1.28–40 (1899); he also deals with ontogenetic and phylogenetic parallelism.
- In Tiedemann's observations of 1787 (note 7) one finds the same little tricks of linguistic training as are still standard practice in German nurseries. American nursery rimes cling to the words and situations of the rural England of long ago, altho both have largely become meaningless for modern city children.
- For example: D. J. Saer, F. Smith, and J. Hughes, The bilingual problem… Wales (Aberystwyth 1924); C. H. Schmidt, The language medium question (Pretoria 1926); Michael West, Bilingualism (… Bengal) (Calcutta 1926); S. S. Laurie, Lectures on language and linguistic method in the school (Edinburgh, third ed. 1899); Frank Smith, Bilingualism and mental development, British Journal of Psychology 13.271–82 (1923); Conférence internationale sur le bilinguisme (1928), Le bilinguisme et l'éducation (Geneva-Luxemburg 1929; also Spanish ed., Bilbao-Madrid-Barcelona 1932); Moses N. H. Hoffman, The measurement of bilingual background (New York 1934); Herschel T. Manuel, The education of Mexican- and Spanish-speaking children in Texas (Austin 1930); Klonda Lynn, Bilingualism in the southwest, Quarterly Journal of Speech 31.175–80 (1945; Arizona); Joseph G. Yoshioka, A study of bilingualism, Pedagogical Seminary 36.473–9 (1929; Japanese in California); P. M. Symonds, The effect of attendance at Chinese language schools on ability with the English language, Journal of Applied Psychology 8.411–23 (1924; Hawaii); William A. Stark, The effect of bilingualism on general intelligence… Dublin primary schools (thesis Glasgow 1939; outline in) British Journal of Educational Psychology 10.78 f. (1940); Wilhelm Henss, Das Problem der Zwei- und Mehrsprachigkeit und seine Bedeutung für den Unterricht…, Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie 28.393–414 (1927; Holland); Pierre Bovet, Les problèmes scolaires posés par le bilinguisme, Schweizer Erziehungsrundschau 1935. 254; B. Baier, Die Sprachenfrage im Volksschulwesen Elsass-Lothringens (Frankfurt 1928).
- The judicious studies of Seth Arsenian, an American psychologist, favor bilingualism: Bilingualism and mental development (New York 1937); Bilingualism in the post-war world, Psychological Bulletin 42.65–86 (1945); R. Pintner and Arsenian, The relation of bilingualism to verbal intelligence and school adjustment, Journal of Educational Research 31.255–63 (1937). Prejudices against bilingualism are attacked by N. Braunshausen, Le bilinguisme… (Cahiers de la Centrale du P.E.S. de Belgique 7, 1933).
- Jules Ronjat, Le développement du langage observé chez un enfant bilingue (Paris 1913); cp. supplementary report of 1923 in Michael West, Bilingualism 59, note 2.
- Milivoïe Pavlovitch, Le langage enfantin; acquisition du serbe et du français par un enfant serbe (Paris 1920).
- Heinrich Geissler, Zweisprachigkeit deutscher Kinder im Ausland (Stuttgart 1938).
- William Stern, Über Zweisprachigkeit in der frühen Kindheit, Zeitschrift für angewandte Psychologie 30.168–72 (1928), expresses surprise that bilingualism of small children has not been studied more.
- For instance: W. G. Bateman, A child's progress in speech with detailed vocabularies, Journal of Educational Psychology 5.307–20 (1914; Chinese); Mildren Langenbeck, A study of a five-year-old child, Pedagogical Seminary 22.65–88 (1915; German); Velten (see note 80; French, Norwegian).
- Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris 16. lxvi.
- Cp. Bloomfield 386.
- The paucity of records dealing with child bilingualism is deplored by McCarthy in her summary of 1946 (see note 66) 566 and 568.
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