- Greenberg, Joseph H., ‘The Tonal System of Proto-Bantu’, Word, 4: 196–208 (1948).
- Armstrong, Lilias A. The Phonetic and Tonal Structure of Kikuyu (London, 1940).
- It is recognized that so-called grammatical elements may have lexical values.
- The radical is defined as the minimum lexical element of the verbal, i.e. the root without the grammatical suffix.
- The acute accent denotes a high tone, a vertical accent denotes a mid tone, a circumflex accent a rising tone, and the absence of accent a low tone. In a geminate vowel sequence (long vowel) the accent is marked over each vowel.
- First observed by M. Guthrie and investigated in detail by the writer of the present article.
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