- A. M. Liberman, P. C. Delattre, F. S. Cooper, The role of selected stimulus-variables in the perception of the unvoiced stop consonants, American Journal of Psychology, 65.497–516 (1952); A. M. Liberman, P. C. Delattre, F. S. Cooper, L. J. Gerstman, The role of consonant-vowel transitions in the perception of the stop and nasal consonants, Psychological Monographs, 68. No. 8, Whole No. 379 (1954); Katherine S. Harris, Cues for the identification of the fricatives of American English, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 26.952 (1954).
- The majority of the allophones of /w, j, r, l/ are voiced oral resonants, and the occurrence of voiceless fricative allophones of all four phonemes in the same phonetic environment, i.e., after a voiceless stop or fricative in the same syllable, whilst no doubt connected with their phonemic distribution, is an added mark of their coherence as a class.
- In many, perhaps most, dialects of English this would be an exclusive class-marker but, in the case of those dialects where “new” = /nu/, the phoneme /n/ shares this distributional characteristic.
- This sets them off from all English phonemes except /ŋ/ which must also occupy the immediately post-vocalic position, although it is quite unlike /w, j, r, l/ in its general distribution.
- For a more detailed statement of the combinatory latitudes of /w,j,r,l/ see J. D. O'Connor and J. L. M. Trim, Vowel, consonant, and syllable—a phonological definition, Word, 9.103–122 (1953).
- For a description of the pattern playback see F. S. Cooper, Spectrum analysis, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 22.761–762 (1950); F. S. Cooper, A. M. Liberaman, J. M. Borst, The interconversion of audible and visible patterns as a basis for research in the perception of speech, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 37.318–325 (1951); F. S. Cooper, Some instrumental aids to research on speech, pp. 46–53 in Report of the fourth annual round table meeting on linguistics and language teaching, Washington, D. C.: Institute of Languages and Linguistics, Georgetown University (1953).
- See P. C. Delattre, A. M. Liberman, F. S. Cooper, Voyelles synthétiques à deux formantes et voyelles cardinales, Le Maître phonétique, 96.30–37 (1951).
- We have drawn all our transitions as straight lines even though the transitions of real speech are necessarily curvilinear. Using straight lines enables us to control the patterns more precisely, and it does not significantly alter the auditory impression.
- See Liberman, Delattre, Cooper, Gerstman, op. cil.
- This has been demonstrated by several methods: from a statistical analysis of the vowel productions of many speakers by O. E. Peterson and H. L. Barney, Control methods used in a study of the vowels, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 24. 175–184 (1952); from tests constructed at the pattern playback by P. C. Delattre, A. M. Liberman, F. S. Cooper, L. J. Gerstman, An experimental study of the acoustic determinants of vowel color: observations on one- and two-formant vowels synthesized from spectrographic patterns, Word, 8.195–210 (1952); and from vowel synthesis employing electronic analogs of the vocal tract by several investigators. See: H. K. Dunn, The calculation of vowel resonances, and an electrical vocal tract, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 22.740–753 (1950); K. N. Stevens, S. Kasowski, C. G. M. Fant, An electrical analog of the vocal tract, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 25.734–742 (1953); K. N. Stevens and A. S. House, Development of a quantitative description of vowel articulation, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 27.484–493 (1955).
- For a discussion of the “locus” concept, see P. C. Delattre, A. M. Liberman, F. S. Cooper, Acoustic loci and transitional cues for consonants, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 37–769–773 (1955).
- Delattre, Liberman, Cooper, (1955), op. cit.
- Delattre, Liberman, Cooper, (1955), op. cit.; A. M. Liberman, P. C. Delattre, L. J. Gerstmari, F. S. Cooper, Tempo of frequency change as a cue for distinguishing classes of speech sounds, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 52.127–137 (1956). The first-formant locus for the stop consonants was found to be at the lowest frequency attainable with the pattern playback (120 cps). Any higher frequency caused the stops to sound less like stops and more like semivowels. This effect was slight, however, as compared to the strong influence of transition duration: patterns were heard as semivowels or stops depending on whether the transitions were more or less than 50 msec.
- These effects correspond exactly to those obtained with naive subjects who were able to hear the series /bε, wε, uε/ or /gε, jε, iε/ solely as a function of changes in transition duration. See Liberman, Delattre, Gerstman, Cooper, op. cil., and Footnote 13.
- K. N. Stevens and A. S. House have demonstrated that precisely this kind of locus movement can be expected, on the basis of their calculations, to occur for the second-formant loci of /b/ and of /g/: Studies of formant transitions using a vocal tract analog, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 28.578–585 (1956). In our own earlier research on the second-formant loci of /b/, /d/, and /g/, we had to contend with the difficulties arising from the fact that the second-formant transitions do not (and, indeed, cannot) begin at the locus, but must only point to it. As a result, we had to rely on a series of straight second formants (at various frequency levels) in order to find the /b/, /d/, and /g/ loci. By the very nature of that procedure, it was impossible to detect the kind of locus movement that we have here found with /r/ and /1/ and that Stevens and House would expect to find with /b/ and /g/.
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