- For the term “language planning” see the writer's article “Linguistics and Language Planning” in the forthcoming proceedings of the Conference on Sociolinguistics (Los Angeles, 1964) and his book Language Conflict and Language Planning (Harvard Press, 1966). The term was used by Uriel Weinreich as the title of a seminar at Columbia University in 1957.
- Rasmus K. Rask, Forsøg til en videnskabelig dansk Retskrivnings-lœre med Hensyn til Stamsproget og Nabosproget (Copenhagen, 1826).
- Otto Jespersen, An International Language (London, 1928).
- The Greek restoration was held up as a model for the Norwegians by P. A. Munch in his articles of 1832 on “Norsk Sprogreformation.”
- Charles E. Bidwell, “Language, Dialect, and Nationality in Yugoslavia.” Human Relations XV (1962), 217–225; Arne Gallis, “Skriftspråk og dialekter i Jugoslavia,” in Skriftspråk i utvikling (Oslo, 1964), 187–195. Vuk's grammar was translated into German by Jacob Grimm in 1824, but there is no evidence that it was known in Norway.
- Charles A. Ferguson, “Diglossia,” Word XV (1959), 325–340; “The Language Factor in National Development,” Anthropological Linguistics IV (1962), i, 23–27.
- For an earlier treatment by the author see “The Linguistic Development of Ivar Aasen's New Norse.” PMLA XLVIII (1931), 558–597.
- For references see the author's forthcoming Language Conflict and Language Planning (above, fn. 1).
- Trygve Knudsen, “Sprogforskeren Ivar Aasen,” Maal og Minne 1963, 135–153; Reidar Djupedal, “Ivar Aasen, målgranskaren og målreisaren,” Halvtanna hundreår med Ivar Aasen (Oslo: Noregs Mållag, 1964), 9–21; Gustav Indrebø, Norsk Målsoga (Bergen, 1951), 437ff.; Alf Hellevik, “Ved Aasen-minnet,” Syn og Segn 1963, 3–15; Alf Hellevik, “Om tilhøvet mellom skriftmål og talemål,” Syn og Segn 1945, 271ff.; Aasen's development as a scholar was first outlined by Halvdan Koht in Ivar Aasen, Granskaren, maal-reisaren, diktaren (Kristiania, 1913); see also Trygve Knudsen, P. A. Munch og samtidens norske sprogstrev (Kristiania, 1923).
- Ivar Aasen, Brev og Dagbøker, ed. Reidar Djupedal, 3 vols. (Oslo, 1957–1960).
- Johan Storm, Norsk Sprog (Copenhagen, 1896), 115.
- Antoine Meillet, Les langues dans l'Europe nouvelle (Paris, 1928), 182, 241–243.
- Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History (Oxford, 1934–1954), Vol. 6, p. 63.
- In a lecture on historical linguistics at the Linguistic Institute held at Bloomington, Indiana, Summer 1964.
- Leonard Bloomfield, Language (New York, 1933), 303.
- Cf. Wallace Chafe, “Internal Reconstruction in Seneca” (Language XXXV [1959], 477–495), p. 478: “Most of historical linguistics is fundamentally dependent upon the technique of comparing cognate forms”; p. 479: “The first step is the discovery of recurrent phoneme correspondences.” For other recent statements on the methods of historical linguistics see Henry Hoenigswald, Language Change and Linguistic Reconstruction (Chicago, 1960); W. P. Lehmann, Historical Linguistics: An Introduction (New York, 1962). For an older, but still useful introduction see Antoine Meillet, La méthode comparative en linguistique historique (Oslo, 1925).
- For Aasen's life see Halvdan Koht, op. cit., and now Brev og Dagbøker, Ed. R. Djupedal (above, fn. 9).
- Ivar Aasen, Skrifter i Samling, 3 vols. (Kristiania, 1911–12); and Skrifter, 2 vols. (2nd ed.; Oslo, 1926). All quotations here are from the 2nd ed.
- Skrifter I, 9–14.
- For the discussion conducted by P. A. Munch, Jonas Anton Hielm, and Henrik Wergeland see Trygve Knudsen, P. A. Munch og samtidens norske sprogstrev (Kristiania, 1923), 6–19.
- See his experiments with a reformed orthography in Brev og Dagbøker I, 38ff.
- Skrifter I, 13.
- Skrifter II, 48–50; written in January, 1836 (cf. Brev og Dagbøker in, 415).
- According to Aasen's own diary notation he read Rask's “Iislandske Grm.” in February, 1838 (Brev og Dagbøker III, 21), but the edition is not identified. It could either have been the fuller Vejledning til det slandske eller gamle Nordiske Sprog (Copenhagen, 1811) or the abbreviated Kortfattet Vejledning til det oldnordiske eller gamle islandske Sprog (Copenhagen, 1832). The only one he is known to have owned is the latter, which he was given by Rev. J. P. Berg on December 12, 1841 (Brev og Dagbøker III, 34); see also Lista yver Ivar Aasen-boksamlingi (Volda, 1946), 13, and his report of September 1, 1842 (Brev og Dagbøker I, 49). His diaries and papers show that his plan for a Norwegian language and his first Sunnmøre grammar preceded his reading of Rask; but in letters of 1863 and 1874 he claimed that Rask had stimulated him to the study of his own dialect (Brev og Dagbøker II, 19, 140).
- According to Trygve Knudsen, Maal og Minne 1963, 138.
- The citation here is from Knudsen, Maal og Minne 1963, 140.
- Norsk Grammatik, Introduction, p. xiv. (Hereafter cited as NG, by the numbered paragraphs).
- Ibid.
- To Andreas Faye, Brev og Dagbøker 1.102.
- See his Vejledning til det Islandske eller gamle Nordiske Sprog (Copenhagen, 1811), esp. the Intr. p. xviff.; also his Undersøgelse om det gamle Nordiske eller Islandske Sprogs Oprindelse (Copenhagen, 1818), 64: “det gamle nordiske Sprog, som nu kaldes Islandsk.”
- Jacob Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, Vol. 1 (2nd ed.; Göttingen, 1822), 280–330.
- Franz Bopp, Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, Zend, Griechischen, Lateinischen, Littauischen, Gothischen und Deutschen (Berlin, 1833ff.).
- C. R. Unger and P. A. Munch, Det oldnorske Sprogs eller Norrønasprogets Grammatik (Christiania, 1847).
- See Jón Aðalsteinn Jónsson, “Á173e;grip af sögu íslenzkrar stafsetningar,” Íslenzk tunga I(1959), 71–119.
- Chr. Matras, “Det færøyske skriftsprog af 1846,” Scripta Islandico II (1951), 5–23; Reidar Djupedal, “Litt om framvoksteren av det færøryske skriftmålet,” Skriftspråk i utvikling (Oslo, 1964), 144–186.
- On Faroese see his letter to Landstad on April 16, 1852 (Brev og Dagbøker I, 232).
- His basic view was expressed in his 1845 plan for the dictionary (Kgl. Videnskabers Selskabs Skrifter, Vol. 4): “Det gamle Sprog bør ellers overalt haves for Øie, dog saaledes, at man ikke derfor taber det nuværende Sprogs Beskaffenhed af Sigte.” He repeated similar ideas several times, especially in his discussion with Landstad over the spelling of the ballads (e.g., July 22, 1848, Brev og Dagbøker I, 159). For discussion see Trygve Knudsen, P. A. Munch, 54ff.
- Cf. his remark in a letter to Marius Nygaard (9 June, 1859): “Hvordan vi snoe og vende det, komme vi dog i mange Stykker til at ligne Svensken alligevel, og dette er da egentlig ikke nogen Skade heller.” (Brev og Dagbøker I, 371).
- In NG 7n he praises the pronunciation “som er almindeligst i den sydvestlige Deel af Landet og især i Bergens Stift og de nærmeste Fjeldbygder østenfor.”
- In his report to the Scientific Society June 26,1845, he wrote: “Dialekten i Mandals og Nedenæs Fogderier er ikke af nogen Vigtighed, da den omtrent falder sammen med den Mellemart af Norsk og Dansk, som sædvanlig forekommer i Kjøbstasderne og hos conditionerede Folk paa Landet. Det samme er, med adskillige Forandringer, ogsaa Tilfælde t med Sprogarten i de nedre Dele af Bratsberg og Budskeruds Amter.” (Brev og Dagbøker 1,111).
- Holger Pedersen, Linguistic Science in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1931), 314.
- His reason for praising the western dialects (above, fn. 39) was that they “come quite close to the model (Mønsterform) which one can infer from the orthography of the old language.” Dialects of the northern group he described as belonging to “the poorer or more distorted” because of their deviation from the norm and the difficulty of setting up rules for them (Report to the Scientific Society Dec. 31, 1846, Brev og Dagbøker I, 133–135).
- Reidar Djupedal, “Ivar Aasen, målgranskaren og målreisaren” (cf. fn. 9), 4: “Vikan gjerne seia at Aasen grunnlegg ein ny vitskap, den jamførande målføregranskinga.”
- Cf. Paul Diderichsen, Rasmus Rask og den grammatiske tradition (Copenhagen 1960), 66ff., where quotations from the Latin of G. J. Wachter (1737) show both terms. Note that Aasen did not speak of “Bogstavovergange,” as did Rask, but of “Lydovergange.”
- Cf. NG 377 for his use of the term “Middelform” and a definition.
- NG 6
- Cf. Trygve Knudsen, P. A. Munch, 47fF.
- For a succinct statement of his principles see his letter to Marius Nygaard, Brev og Dagbøker I (9 June, 1859), 364.
- The earliest available statement of his vowel system is in a letter to Andreas Faye of January 15, 1845 (Brev og Dagbøker 1, 103). The three columns are here distinguished by acoustic terms, strangely reminiscent of Roman Jakobson's contrast of grave and acute. The back round vowels are called “hollow but not sharp,” the front round “hollow and somewhat sharp,” the front unround “sharp but not hollow” (i.e., plus grave, plus-minus grave, minus grave). In the 1848 grammar an articulatory terminology has been substituted, describing what he calls “Fremskydning of Stødepunket,” according to which the “least advanced” are what we would call “front”; apparently the term refers to the protrusion of the lips, without regard to tongue position. This terminology is carried over into the 1864 grammar. The rows are distinguished by degree of opening as “broad” and “narrow.” The “open” vowels are called “Mellemlyd” in 1845, but the term “aaben” enters in 1848 and is the only term used in 1864.
- The vowel chart is in NG 20. For further information on the vowel systems of the dialects see Einar Haugen, “On the Stressed Vowel Systems of Norwegian,” Scandinavian Studies Presented to George T. Flom (Urbana, Illinois, 1942), 66–78.
- Grave accents only are used in the vowel chart of 1845. For details on his discussions with academic advisers in Oslo see his letter to Olaus Vullum (9 November, 1847) in Brev og Dagbøker I, 146; also his report to the Scientific Society (7 October, 1847) ibid., 1, 139–141 and letter to F. M. Bugge (7 October, 1847), ibid., 1, 141. He gave up the grave and adopted acute on the old long vowels in the 1848 grammar. As a result of this discussion he gave up any marking of vowels in the 1864 grammar and 1873 dictionary, but placed instead either a double vowel (for the closed vowels) or an apostrophized vowel (for the open vowels) in parentheses after the word where he found it necessary to distinguish (usually only when long).
- NG 26n.
- Cf. Aasen's statement in NG 20n: “Det synes ogsaa ellers at være et Slags Regel, at naar den aabne Vokal nærmer sig meget til den lukte Lyd, da vil netop den lukte Lyd fraskille sig ved en bredere eller mere diftongisk Form.”
- NG 29n.
- NG 15n.
- He dot write the grave accent over short vowels, as a rule.
- NG 15.
- NG 33n.
- P. A. Munch, Den Constitutionelle, 1845, cit. Trygve Knudsen, P. A. Munch, 52ff.
- NG 228n.
- For references to euphony (Velklang) and clarity (Tydelighed) see, e.g., NG 233n, 234n, 343n.
- NG 390n.
- NG 392n.
- For a typology of language functions see William A. Stewart, “An Outline of Linguistic Typology for Describing Multilingualism,” in Frank A. Rice, Study of the Role of Second Languages (Washington, D.C., 1962), 15–25.
- Moltke Moe, in a review of Garborg and Mortenson's reader (Vor Ungdom 1886, 75–93).
- Cf. Aasen's own statement in a letter to V. E. Lidforss (7 March, 1873): “Mange af vore Landsmænd sige rigtignok, at det er et ‘lavet Sprog’, men noget lignende kan man vistnok ogsaa sige om flere af de moderne Sprog…. Forøvrigt ere de allerfleste Former i virkelig Brug, og allesammen ere de historisk givne, saa at intet kan siges at være op- fundet eller vilkaarlig opstillet.” (Brev og Dagbøker II, 128).
- For a vigorous critique of later changes in Aasen's norm see Gustav Indrebø, Norsk målsoga (Bergen, 1951), 457: “Visst er òg at Aasens ettertid hev vore for snar til å riva ned og riva sund ymist av verket hans.” Harvard University
- I wish to express special gratitude to the editor of Aasen's correspondence and diaries, Reidar Djupedal, for his kindness in answering my questions and furnishing me with otherwise inaccessible materials for this study.
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