- A condensed version of this paper was read on July 30, 1965, at the Summer Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, at Ann Arbor, Michigan. The author is indebted to Professor Peter Ladefoged for his assistance with the instrumentation and for helpful discussions.
- R. H. Stetson, Motor Phonetics (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Co., 1951), p. 50.
- R-M. Heffner, General Phonetics (Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1950), p. 120.
- A. Malécot, “An Experimental Study of the Force of Articulation,” Studia Linguistica IX (1955), 43.
- R. G. Jakobson, G. Fant, and M. Halle, Preliminaries to Speech Analysis (2nd printing, with Supplement, “Tenseness and Laxness,” by Jakobson and Halle; Cambridge, Mass.: The M. I. T. Press, 1963), p. 38. Although both tenseness and voicing are listed as separate distinctive features in the works of these authors, such a statement as “in the opposition of tense and lax consonants, the laxness is frequently accompanied by voicing and tenseness by voicelessness…” (R. Jakobson and M. Halle, Fundamentals of Language [The Hague: Mouton & Co.], p. 43) and their distinctive feature matrices of English phonemes (e.g., in Preliminaries, Appendix) seem to suggest that they regard the phonetic dimension of voicing as a mere concomitant phenomenon of the tensity feature. But see also the revised matrix of English consonants in Halle, “On the Bases of Phonology,” The Structure of Language: Readings in the Philosophy of Language, eds. Fodor and Katz (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1964), p. 328.
- Preliminaries, p. 38.
- D. Jones, An Outline of English Phonetics (8th ed.; New York: Dutton & Co., 1959), p. 39.
- P. Ladefoged, A Phonetic Study of West African Languages (Cambridge, England: The Cambridge University Press, 1964), pp. 38–39.
- K. L. Pike, Phonetics (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1943), p. 128.
- J. Reeds and W. S-Y. Wang, “The Perception of Stops after s,” Phonetica VI (1961), 80.
- L. Lisker, “On Hultzen's ‘Voiceless Lenis Stops in Prevocalic Clusters’,” Word XIX (1963), 376–387.
- ibid., 377.
- L. Lisker and A. S. Abramson, “A Cross-Language Study of Voicing in Initial Stops: Acoustical Measurements,” Word XX (1964), 385–387.
- Ibid., 420.
- Fundamentals, p. 28.
- The transcription of Korean stops varies from book to book. Here, mainly for typographical reasons, I adopt the following convention: I. Voiceless unaspirated tense series: /p*, t*, k*/ II. Voiceless slightly aspirated lax series: /p, t, k/ III. Voiceless strongly aspirated tense series: /ph, th, kh'/ Examples: I. /p*ul/ ‘horn’, /t*al/ ‘daughter’,/ k*ətta/ ‘extinguished’ II. /pul/ ‘fire’, /tal/ ‘moon, month’, /kətta/ ‘to walk’ III. /phul/ ‘grass; glue’, /thal/ ‘mask’, /khətta/ ‘grew’
- W. Moulton, “Dialect Geography and the Concept of Phonological Space,” Word XVIII (1962), 23–32.
- A. Martinet, Economie des changements phonétiques (Bibliotheca Romanica, Series Prima, X [Bern: Francke, 1955]), p. 62. Martinet credits the principle to A. W. de Groot.
- Op. cit., 403.
- S. Martin, “Korean Phonemics,” Language XXI (1951), reprinted in Joos, Readings in Linguistics (New York:, 1958), p. 366. Op. cit., 364.
- The present orthography of words such as salm ‘life’, talk ‘fowl’ or yətəslp ‘eight’ reflects their morphophonemic not just their phonemic structure. In spite of the orthography, they are pronounced as /sam/, /tak/, and /yətəl/. Note also the way in which loanwords are transcribed, e.g., k*olphU ‘golf’, t*ans ‘dance’, klistO ‘Christ’, and so on.
- H. F. J. Junker, “Über Phonem in Koreanischen,” Wissenshaftliche Zeitschrift der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin I (1953), 28.
- Junker, Koreanische Studien (Abhandlungen der deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1955), p. 33.
- H-P. Choi, Ulimalpon (Grammar of Our Language) (Rev. ed.; Seoul, Korea: Chong-Um Sa, 1954), p. 77.
- A. Skaličkava, The Korean Consonants (Rozpravy Československé akademie vĕd, Ročnik 70, Sešit 3, Praha, 1960), pp. 14–15.
- Op. cit. and “Some Problems of General Phonetics, Demonstrated on the System of Korean Consonants,” Acta Universitatis Carolinae-Philologica I (1959), 29–39.
- Op. cit., 403.
- Ibid., 413–414.
- Note what Halle, Hughes, and Radley remarked for English: “The lax stops show a significant drop in level in the high frequencies. This high frequency loss is a consequence of the lower pressure associated with the production of lax stops and is therefore a crucial cue for this class of stops.” (”Acoustic Properties of Stop Consonants,” Journal of the Acoustic Society of America XXIX [1957], 108.)
- P. Ladefoged, E. Dunstan, and a few others have remarked so.
- Cited in Jakobson et al., p. 38.
- Cf. Scripture: “The rapidity of vibration depends on the length, tension, and loading of the muscle constituting the vocal bands.” (Italics mine) (The Elements of Experimental Phonetics [London and New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1902], p. 251.)
- Op. cit., p. 61.
- Scripture also notes that “the firmness of contraction of the tongue muscle is added in the terms ‘tense’ and ‘lax’.” (The Elements of Experimental Phonetics, p. 427.)
- G. Noël-Armfield, General Phonetics (Cambridge, England: W. Heifer and Sons, 1924), p. 29.
- “Observations sur la classement phonologique des consonnes,” Selected Writings I (The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1962), p. 273.
- P. Ladefoged, “The Nature of General Phonetic Theories,” The 16th Annual Round Table Meeting on Linguistics and Language Studies, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., Forthcoming.
- E. Brière, “On Defining a Hierarchy of Difficulties of Learning Categories,” Forthcoming.
- N. H. Quang, Vietnamese /t/ and /th/ (UCLA Phonetics Archive, 1965).
- J. Wigfield, Javanese Stops (UCLA Phonetics Archive, 1964).
- J. C. Catford, “Phonation Types: The Classification of Some Laryngeal Components of Speech Production,” In Honour of Daniel Jones (London: Longmans, 1964), pp. 26–37.
- Ladefoged, A Phonetic Study of West African Languages, p. 16.
- J. Lotz, A. S. Abramson, L. Gerstman, F. Ingemann, and W. Nemser, “The Perception of English Stops by Speakers of English, Spanish, Hungarian, and Thai: A Tape-Cutting Experiment,” Language and Speech III (1960), 74.
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