Archaeologies of Buddhist propagation in ancient India: ‘ritual’ and ‘practical’ models of religious change

References

• Ali , D. 1998 . Technologies of the self: courtly artifice and monastic discipline in early India . Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient , 41 ( 2 ) : 159 – 84 .
   Google Scholar
• Allchin , F. R. and Norman , K. R. 1985 . Guide to the Aśokan inscriptions . South Asian Studies , 1 : 43 – 5 .
   Google Scholar
• Bailey , G. and Mabbett , I. 2003 . The Sociology of Early Buddhism , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bakker , H. T. 1996 . Construction and reconstruction of sacred space in Varanasi . Numen , 43 ( 1 ) : 32 – 55 .
   Google Scholar
• Bakker , H. T. and Isaacson , H. , eds. 2004 . The Skandapurā ṇa , Vol. II , Critical Edition with an Introduction, English Synopsis & Philological and Historical Commentary. Supplement to Groningen Oriental Studies. Groningen : Egbert Forsten . (eds), A, Adhyāyas 26–31.14: The Vārāṇasī Cycle
   Google Scholar
• Bakker , H. T. 2007 . Monuments to the dead in ancient North India . Indo-Iranian Journal , 50: 11–47.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bechert , H. , ed. 1991 . The Dating of the Historical Buddha , Göttingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht . (ed.)
   Google Scholar
• Benavides , G. 2005 . “ Economy ” . In In Critical Terms for the Study of Buddhism (ed , pp. 77 – 102 . D. S. Lopez Jr). Chicago, IL, and London : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bendall , C. 1880 . The Meghasūtra (partial edition and translation . Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society , : 236 – 311 .
   Google Scholar
• Bloss , L. W. 1973 . The Buddha and the naga: a study in Buddhist folk religiosity . History of Religions , 13 ( 1 ) : 37 – 53 .
   Google Scholar
• Byrne , D. 1995 . Buddhist stupa and Thai social practice . World Archaeology , 27 ( 2 ) : 266 – 81 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandra , G. C. 1938 . Excavations at Rajgir . Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India , : pp. 52 – 4 . 1935–36. Delhi,
   Google Scholar
• Cohen , R. S. 1998 . Naga, Yaksini, Buddha: local deities and local Buddhism at Ajanta . History of Religions , 37 : 360 – 400 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coningham , R. A. E. 1995 . Monks, caves and kings: a reassessment of the nature of early Buddhism in Sri Lanka . World Archaeology , 27 : 222 – 42 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coningham , R. A. E. 2001 . “ The archaeology of Buddhism. In ” . In Archaeology and World Religion , pp. 60 – 95 . London : Routledge . (ed. T. Insoll)
   Google Scholar
• Coningham , R. , Gunawardhana , L. , Manuel , M. , Adikari , G. , Katugampola , M. , Young , R. , Schmidt , A. , Krishnan , K. , Simpson , I. , McDonnell , G. and Batt , C. 2007 . The state of theocracy: defining an early medieval hinterland in Sri Lanka . Antiquity , 81 : 699 – 719 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conze , E. 1975 . Buddhism: Its Essence and Development , New York : Harper & Row .
   Google Scholar
• Cunningham , A. 1854 . Bhilsa Topes , London : Smith, Elder .
   Google Scholar
• Dalton , J. 2004 . The early development of the Padmasambhava legend in Tibet: a study of IOL Tib J 644 and Pelliot tibetain 307 . Journal of the American Oriental Society , 124 ( 4 ) : 759 – 72 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eaton , R. M. 1993 . The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760 , Berkeley : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Eck , D. 1981 . Darśan: Seeing the Divine Image in India , Chambersberg : Anima Books .
   Google Scholar
• Falk , H. 2006 . Aśokan Sites and Artefacts: A Source-Book with Bibliography , 18 Mainz : Monographien zur indischen Archäologie, Kunst und Philologie .
   Google Scholar
• Fogelin , L. 2004 . “ Sacred architecture, sacred landscape: early Buddhism in northern coastal Andhra Pradesh. In ” . In Archaeology as History in Early South Asia , pp. 376 – -91 . New Delhi : Aryan Books International . (eds H. P. Ray and C. M. Sinopol)
   Google Scholar
• Fogelin , L. 2006 . Archaeology of Early Buddhism , New York : Altamira Press .
   Google Scholar
• Fuller , D. Q. 2002 . “ Fifty years of archaeobotanical studies in India: laying a solid foundation. In ” . In Indian Archaeology in Retrospect , Vol. 3 , 247 – 363 . New Delhi : Manohar for the Indian Council for Historical Research . Archaeology and Interactive Disciplines eds S. Settar and R. Korisettar)
   Google Scholar
• Geertz , C. 1963 . Agricultural Involution: The Process of Ecological Change in Indonesia , Berkeley : Association of Asian Studies, University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gernet , J. 1995 . “ [1956] ” . In Buddhism in Chinese Society: An Economic History from the Fifth to the Tenth Centuries , New York : Columbia University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ghosh , A. 1973 . The City in Early Historical India , Simla : Indian Institute of Advanced Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Glover , I. C. and Higham , C. F. W. 1996 . “ New evidence for rice cultivation in South, Southeast and East Asia ” . In In The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia (ed , pp. 413 – 41 . G. R. Harris). London : UCL Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gombrich , R. 1988 . Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo , London : Routledge & Kegan Paul .
   Google Scholar
• Goody , J. 1975 . “ Religion, social change, and the sociology of conversion ” . In In Changing Social Structure in Ghana (ed , pp. 91 – 106 . J. Goody). London : International African Institute .
   Google Scholar
• Green , R. M. 1992 . “ Buddhist economic ethics: a theoretical approach ” . In In Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics (eds R , pp. 215 – 34 . F. Sizemore and D. K. Swearer). Columbia : University of South Carolina Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gunawardana , R. A. L. H. 1971 . Irrigation and hydraulic society in early medieval Ceylon . Past and Present , 53 : 3 – 27 .
   Google Scholar
• Gunawardana , R. A. L. H. 1978 . Social function and political power: a case study of state formation in irrigation society . Indian Historical Review , 4 ( 2 ) : 259 – 73 .
   Google Scholar
• Gunawardana , R. A. L. H. 1979 . Robe and Plough: Monasticism and Economic Interest in Early Medieval Sri Lanka , Tucson : University of Arizona Press for the Association for Asian Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Harbison , R. 1994 . Early Irish pilgrim archaeology in the Dingle Peninsula . World Archaeology , 26 ( 1 ) : 90 – 103 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartel , H. 1993 . Excavations at Sonkh: 2500 Years of a Town in Mathura District , Berlin : Dietrich Reimer Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Harvey , P. 2000 . An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Heitzman , J. 1984 . “ Early Buddhism, trade and empire ” . In In Studies in the Archaeology and Palaeoanthropology of South Asia (eds K , pp. 121 – 37 . New Delhi : Oxford University Press/IBH Publishing . A. R. Kennedy and G. L. Possehl)
   Google Scholar
• Jacobson , J. 1975 . “ ‘Static sites and peripatetic peoples in the archaeology of population mobility in eastern Malwa ” . In In Pastoralists and Nomads in South Asia (eds.  , pp. 68 – 91 . Wiesbaden : O. Harrassowitz . S. Leshnik, and G. D. Sontheimer)
   Google Scholar
• Jaini , P. S. 1980 . “ The disappearance of Buddhism and the survival of Jainism: a study in contrast. In ” . In Studies in the History of Buddhism , ed. A. K. Narain). Delhi : B.R. Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Kennet , D. 2004 . “ The transition from early historic to early medieval in the Vākāṭaka realm ” . In In The Vākāṭaka Heritage: Indian Culture at the Crossroads (ed , pp. 11 – 18 . H. Bakker). Groningen : Egbert Forsten .
   Google Scholar
• Khare , M. D. 1967 . Discovery of a Vishnu temple near the Heliodorus pillar, Besnagar, Dist. Vidisha (M.P . Lalit Kala , 13 : 21 – 7 . )
   Google Scholar
• Kosambi , D. D. 1962 . “ At the crossroads: a study of Mother Goddess cult sites ” . In In Myth and Reality: Studies in the Formation of Indian Culture (ed , pp. 82 – 109 . D. D. Kosambi). Bombay : Popular Prakashan .
   Google Scholar
• Kulke , H. 1993 . “ Max Weber's contribution to the study of ‘Hinduization’ in India and ‘Indianization’ in Southeast Asia ” . In In Kings and Cults: State Formation and Legitimation in India and Southeast Asia , pp. 240 – 61 . Delhi : Manohar .
   Google Scholar
• Marshall , J. , Foucher , A. and Majumdar , N. G. 1940 . The Monuments of Sanchi. London: Probsthain (reprinted 1983 , Delhi : Swati .
   Google Scholar
• Misra , R. N. 1981 . Yaksa Cult and Iconography , New Delhi : Munshiram Manoharlal .
   Google Scholar
• Morrison , K. D. 1995 . Trade, urbanism, and agricultural expansion: Buddhist monastic institutions and the state in early historic western Deccan . World Archaeology , 27 ( 2 ) : 203 – 21 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ortner , S. B. 1978 . Sherpas through their Rituals , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Paranavitana , S. 1970 . Inscriptions of Ceylon , Vol. 2 , vols. Colombo : Department of Archaeology, Ceylon .
   Google Scholar
• Peel , J. D. Y. 1968 . Syncretism and religious change . Comparative Studies in Society and History , 10 : 121 – 41 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puri , B. N. 1968 . Irrigation and agricultural economy in ancient India . Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute , : 48 – 9: 383–90 .
   Google Scholar
• Ray , H. P. 1986 . Monastery and Guild: Commerce under the Satavahanas , Delhi : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ray , H. P. 1994 . The Winds of Change: Buddhism and the Maritime Links of Early South Asia , Delhi : Oxford India .
   Google Scholar
• Sanderson , A. 2004 . “ Notes on the ” . In Mahāmeghasûtra , Unpublished paper, dated 16 April. .
   Google Scholar
• Schmithausen , L. 1997 . Maitri and Magic: Aspects of the Buddhist Attitude toward the Dangerous in Nature , Vienna : Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften .
   Google Scholar
• Schopen , G. 1987 . Burial ‘ad sanctos’ and the physical presence of the Buddha in early Indian Buddhism: a study in the archaeology of religions . Religion , 17 : 193 – 225 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schopen , G. 1994 . Doing business for the lord: lending on interest and written loan contracts in the Mūlasarvāstivāda-Vinaya . Journal of the American Oriental Society , 114 ( 4 ) : 527 – 54 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schopen , G. 1996a . The lay ownership of monasteries and the role of the monk in Mūlasarvāstivādin monasticism . Journal of International Association of Buddhist Studies , 19 : 81 – 126 .
   Google Scholar
• Schopen , G. 1996 . “ b. Immigrant monks and the proto-historical dead: the Buddhist occupation of early burial sites in India ” . In Festschrift Dieter Schlingloff , pp. 360 – 81 . Reinbek: Verlag fur Orientalistische Fachpublikationen, pp. 215–38 . (ed. F. Wilheln)(reprinted in G. Schopen, 2004,Buddhist Monks and Business Matters: Still More Papers on Buddhist Monasticism in India. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press
   Google Scholar
• Schumacher , E. F. 1973 . Small is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered , London : Vintage .
   Google Scholar
• Shaw , J. 2004 . ‘Naga sculptures in Sanchi's archaeological landscape: Buddhism, Vaisnavism and local agricultural cults in central India, first century BCE to fifth century CE’, Artibus Asiae LXIV(1) 5–59.
   Google Scholar
• Shaw , J. 2007 . Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. 3rd Century BC to 5th Century AD , London : British Association for South Asian Studies, British Academy .
   Google Scholar
• Shaw, J. 2009. Stūpas, monasteries and relics in the landscape: typological, spatial, and temporal patterns in the Sanchi area. In Buddhist Stūpas in South Asia: Recent Archaeological, Art-Historical, and Historical Perspectives (eds J. Hawkes and A. Shimada). New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Shaw , J. 2011 . Monasteries, monasticism, and patronage in ancient India: Mawasa, a recently documented hilltop Buddhist complex in the Sanchi area of Madhya Pradesh . South Asian Studies , 27 ( 2 ) : 111 – 30 .
   Google Scholar
• Shaw , J. April 2011 . In Death Shall Have No Dominion (eds C. Renfrew, M. Boyd and I. Morely). Proceedings of McDonald Institute Seminar, Cambridge , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . in review. Buddhist mortuary traditions in ancient India: stūpas, relics and the Buddhist landscape
   Google Scholar
• Shaw , J. and Sutcliffe , J. V. 2001 . Ancient irrigation works in the Sanchi area: an archaeological and hydrological investigation . South Asian Studies , 17 : 55 – 75 .
   Google Scholar
• Shaw , J. and Sutcliffe , J. V. 2003 . Water management, patronage networks and religious change: new evidence from the Sanchi dam complex and counterparts in Gujarat and Sri Lanka . South Asian Studies , 19 : 73 – 104 .
   Google Scholar
• Shaw , J. and Sutcliffe , J. V. 2005 . Ancient dams and Buddhist landscapes in the Sanchi area: new evidence on irrigation, land use and monasticism in central India . South Asian Studies , 21 : 1 – 24 .
   Google Scholar
• Shaw , J. , Sutcliffe , J. V. , Lloyd-Smith , L. , Schwenninger , J-L. and Chauhan , M. S. 2007 . Ancient irrigation and Buddhist history in Central India: optically stimulated luminescence and pollen sequences from the Sanchi dams . Asian Perspectives , : 46(1): 166 – 201 . with contributions by Misra, O. P. and Harvey, E
   Google Scholar
• Sherratt , A. 1999 . “ Cash-crops before cash: organic consumables and trade ” . In In The Prehistory of Food: Appetites for Change (eds C , pp. 13 – 34 . Gosden and J. G. Hatler). London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Shimada , A. 2012 . Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stupa at Amaravati , Leiden : Brill .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , M. 2006 . The archaeology of food preference . American Anthropologist , 108 ( 3 ) : 480 – 93 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stopford , J. 1994 . Some approaches to the archaeology of Christian pilgrimage . World Archaeology , 26 ( 1 ) : 57 – 77 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strenski , I. 1983 . On generalised exchange and the domestication of the Sangha . Man , 18 : 463 – 77 .
   Google Scholar
• Sutcliffe , J. , Shaw , J. and Brown , E. 2011 . Historical water resources in South Asia: the hydrological background . Hydrological Sciences Journal , 56(5): 775–88.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tambiah , S. J. 1970 . Buddhism and the Spirit Cults of Northeast Thailand , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Tambiah , S. J. 1976 . World Conqueror and World Renouncer: A Study of Buddhism in Thailand against a Historical Background , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Thapar , R. 1984 . From Lineage to State: Social Formations in the Mid-First Millennium B.C. in the Ganga Valley , Bombay : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Verardi , G. 1996 . ‘Religion, rituals and the heaviness of Indian history . Annali (Istituti universitario Orientale) , 56 : 215 – 253 .
   Google Scholar
• Walters , J. S. 2002 . “ Mapping Sāñchi in a whole Buddhist world ” . In In Buddhist Studies in Honour of Professor Lily de Silva (ed , pp. 1 – 14 . P. D. Premasiri-Peradeniya). Peradeniya : University of Peradeniya, Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Watson , A. 1983 . Agricultural Innovation in the early Islamic World: The Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques, 700–1100 , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Weber , M. 1963 . The Sociology of Religion , Boston, MA : Beacon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Willis, M. D., with contributions from Cribb, J. and Shaw, J. 2000. Buddhist Reliquaries from Ancient India. London: British Museum Press.
   Google Scholar
• Willis , M. D. 2004 . “ The archaeology and politics of time ” . In In The Vākāṭaka Heritage: Indian Culture at the Crossroads (ed , pp. 33 – 58 . H. Bakker). Groningen : Egbert Forsten .
   Google Scholar
• Willis , M. D. 2009 . The Archaeology of Hindu Ritual: Temples and the Establishment of the Gods , New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wittfogel , K. A. 1973 . “ [1957] ” . In Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power , New Haven, CT, and London : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Zysk , K. 1998 . Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India: Medicine in the Buddhist Monastery , New Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass .
   Google Scholar