References
- I would like to thank Samantha Brennan for inviting me to contribute this essay and for helpful comments on an earlier version. The essay also profited from audience interaction at the Nineteenth International Social Philosophy Conference at the University of Oregon, July 20, 2002, and at the Conference on Feminist Moral Philosophy at the University of Western Ontario, August 24, 2002.
- Mill , JohnStuart . 2002 . The Subjection of Women 137 – 38 . New York : The Modern Library . in The Basic Writings of John Stuart Mill, intro. J. B. Schneewind, notes and commentary Dale E. Miller
- Sykes , J. B. , ed. 1982 . The Concise Oxford Dictionary, , 7th ed. 715 Oxford : Clarendon Press .
- Part II presents a sample of theories from the Western philosophical tradition. They are selected to give the reader a feel for the kinds of analyses offered at various historical times from the ancient period through the nineteenth century. For reasons of space, many other such theories could not be discussed, for example, the mostly oppressive theories of Plato, Augustine, Aquinas, Kant, Darwin, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Freud, Jung, and Sartre; and the mostly egalitarian, liberationist theories of Mill, Marx and Engels, Russell, and de Beauvoir.
- 1980 . The Nature of Woman: An Encyclopedia & Guide to the Literature 38 – 39 . Inverness , CA : Edgepress . See Mary Anne Warren
- 1997 . Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, , 2d ed. 108 – 19 . My remarks on the History of Animals are indebted to the more extensive analysis of Aristotle's theory of sex polarity provided by Sister Prudence Allen, R.S.M., The Concept of Woman: The Aristotelian Revolution, 750 B.C.— A.D. 1250 (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans
- Crisp , Roger , ed. 1996 . How Should One Live?: Essays on the Virtues 211 – 29 . New York : Oxford University Press . For a feminist critique of Aristotle's virtue ethics, see Susan Moller Okin, “Feminism, Moral Development, and the Virtues,” in
- Warren . 1950 . “The Bible,” in ” . In The Nature of Woman Edited by: Moulton , Richard G. 68 – 71 . See Following Warren, Bible quotes and references are to The Modern Reader's Bible (New York: MacMillan,).
- Warren . The Nature of Woman See 70.
- Ibid.
- Warren . “Saint Paul,” in ” . In The Nature of Woman 368 – 69 . See
- Hobbes , Thomas . 1992 . Man and Citizen (De Homine and De Cive) Edited by: Gert , Bernard . Indianapolis , IN : Hackett . See 212–15; and John Locke, Second Treatise of Government, ed.C. B. Macpherson (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 1980), 30–34. Locke is sometimes cited as a “protofeminist” or precursor to liberal and radical feminism because of the beliefs that his arguments that “all men are created equal” and that all men have natural rights to life, liberty, and property, logically extend to women in addition to men. See Warren, “Locke, John,” in The Nature of Woman, 282–4; see also Rosemary Agonito, History of Ideas on Women (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1977), 104.
- Hume , For and Rousseau . 1960 . “ see notes 12 and 13, respectively; for Kant, see Immanuel Kant ” . In Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and the Sublime Berkeley : University of California Press . trans. John T. Goldthwait
- Agonito . History of Ideas on Women See 127.
- Hume , David . 1978 . A Treatise of Human Nature, , 2d ed. Edited by: Nidditch , P. H. 557 – 62 . Oxford : Clarendon Press . 570. In other writings, Hume seems more concerned with equality within marriage. See Hume, Essays Moral, Political, and Literary, ed.Eugene F. Miller (Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Classics, 1985), “Of Polygamy and Divorces,” 181–90; and “Of Love and Marriage,”
- Rousseau , Jean-Jacques . 1911 . Emile London : J. M. Dent . See trans. Barbara Foxley & Sons,. In A Discourse on Political Economy, he takes a strongly anti-egalitarian stance on the authority of men and women within marriage. See Jean-Jacques Rousseau, A Discourse on Political Economy, in The Social Contract and Discourses, trans. G. D. H. Cole (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1973), 118.
- Warren . “Rousseau, Jean Jacques,” in ” . In The Nature of Woman 399 – 00 . See
- Ibid., 400.
- Wollstonecraft , Mary . 1975 . A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: An Authoritative Text, Backgrounds, Criticism Edited by: Poston , Carol H. New York : W. W. Norton . See
- 2001 . Treatise Because of ifs focus on motives instead of on a teleological conception of the good or human flourishing, Hume's theory might be an exception to this. See Hume, 478ff; and Michael Slote, Morals from Motives (New York: Oxford University Press, viii-ix; 8.
- 2001 . John Adams New York : Simon & Schuster . Assumptions about men are also likely to be flawed; assumptions about the nature of slaves, found in, for example, Aristotle, definitely are. Evidence that philosophical and theological assumptions about the different natures of men and women found their way into popular culture and private lives is found in the recent biography of John Adams by David McCullough. Abigail Adams reportedly wrote to her husband John: “I believe nature has assigned to each sex its particular duties and sphere of action, and to act well your part, ‘there all the honor lies.’” See David McCullough, 171.
- 1992 . Political Theory , 20 : 226 – 27 . For a discussion of the denial of humanity to slaves and to Jews during the Holocaust, see Martha C. Nussbaum, “Human Functioning and Social Justice: A Defense of Aristotelian Essentialism,”:
- Thomas Aquinas , St. Treatise on Law Edited by: Parry , Stanley . 59 – 61 . See (Chicago: Regnery Gateway)
- Mill , J. S. and Bentham , Jeremy . 1987 . Utilitarianism and Other Essays Edited by: Ryan , Alan . Penguin : Harmondsworth . See; and Mill, On Liberty (Indianapolis, IN: Liberal Arts Press, 1956).
- Rawls , John . 1971 . A Theory of Justice 396 – 97 . Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press . See 92;
- Hurka , Thomas . 2001 . Virtue, Vice, and Value 12 – 13 . New York : Oxford University Press . See
- Thomas Aquinas , St. 1947 . Summa Theologica 1 – 12 . New York : Benziger Brothers . See Vol. II, trans. Fathers of the Dominican English Province II–II, Q. 153, a. 1–5, esp. a. 2–4; Q. 154, a.
- 2001 . Falling Angels New York : Dutton . For a brilliant portrayal of the personalities, happy and unfulfilled, that can coexist under conditions of oppression, see Tracy Chevalier
- I would like to thank Christine Overall, Stephanie Russell, and Susan Sherwin for helpful conversations about emotional wholeness.
- Wells , Rebecca . 1996 . Divine Secrets of the Ya-Ya Sisterhood 234 – 38 . New York : Harper . See (Torch, especially
- 1988 . Forgiveness and Mercy New York : Cambridge University Press . For a defense of hatred, see Jeffrie G. Murphy in Jeffrie G. Murphy and Jean Hampton
- 1999 . Virtue, Vice, and Value , : 43 – 44 . The definition should be defended, though I do not undertake this task here. All of its features have recently been challenged: that virtue is an enduring trait; that practical reason is necessary for virtue; and that virtue is essentially connected with the good. For challenges to virtue as an enduring trait, see, for example, Hurka, Gilbert Harman, “Moral Philosophy Meets Social Psychology: Virtue Ethics and the Fundamental Attribution Error,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 99: 315–31; and John M. Doris, “Persons, Situations, and Virtue Ethics,” Nous 32 (1998): 504–30; for challenges to practical reason's role in virtue, see Julia Driver, Uneasy Virtue (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001); for challenges to virtue's connection with the good, see Slote, Morals from Motives; Gregory W. Trianosky, “Virtue, Action, and the Good Life: Toward a Theory of the Virtues,” Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 68 (1987): 127–47; also, possibly, Linda Trinkaus Zagzebski, Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
- Aquinas . See Summa Theologica, II-II, Q. 123, a. 2.
- 223 – 24 . On the importance of justice in the family for moral education, see Okin, “Feminism, Moral Development, and the Virtues,”
- Aristotle . Nicomachean Ethics Indianapolis , IN : Hackett . See trans. Terence Irwin Books VIII and IX.
- Okin . 227 – 28 . See “Feminism, Moral Development, and the Virtues,”
- Aquinas . See Summa Theologica, II-II, Q. 114, a. 1.
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