A critical review of the refutation text literature: Methodological confounds, theoretical problems, and possible solutions

References

• *Aguilar, S. J., Polikoff, M. S., & Sinatra, G. M. (2019). Refutation texts: A new approach to changing public misconceptions about education policy. Educational Researcher, 48(5), 263–272. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X19849416
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alvermann, D. E., & Hynd, C. R. (1989). Effects of prior knowledge activation modes and text structure on nonscience majors’ comprehension of physics. The Journal of Educational Research, 83(2), 97–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1989.10885937
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, R. C., Reynolds, R. E., Schallert, D. L., & Goetz, E. T. (1977). Frameworks for comprehending discourse. American Educational Research Journal, 14(4), 367–381. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312014004367
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Ariasi, N., Hyönä, J., Kaakinen, J. K., & Mason, L. (2017). An eye-movement analysis of the refutation effect in reading science text. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 33(3), 202–221. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12151
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Ariasi, N., & Mason, L. (2011). Uncovering the effect of text structure in learning from a science text: An eye-tracking study. Instructional Science, 39(5), 581–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-010-9142-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Ariasi, N., & Mason, L. (2014). From covert processes to overt outcomes of refutation text reading: The interplay of science text structure and working memory capacity through eye fixations. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 12(3), 493–423. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-013-9494-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Asterhan, C. S. C., & Resnick, M. S. (2020). Refutation texts and argumentation for conceptual change: A winning or a redundant combination? Learning and Instruction, 65, Article 101265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2019.101265
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asterhan, C. S. C., & Schwarz, B. B. (2009). Argumentation and explanation in conceptual change: Indications from protocol analyses of peer-to-peer dialogue. Cognitive Science, 33(3), 374–400. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-6709.2009.01017.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barenberg, J., & Dutke, S. (2019). Testing and metacognition: Retrieval practise effects on metacognitive monitoring in learning from text. Memory (Hove, England), 27(3), 269–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2018.1506481
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B. M., & Walker, S. C. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckett, C., & Deuze, M. (2016). On the role of emotion in the future of journalism. Social Media + Society, 2(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305116662395
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Beker, K., Kim, J., Van Boekel, M., van den Broek, P., & Kendeou, P. (2019). Refutation texts enhance spontaneous transfer of knowledge. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 56, 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.11.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bidjerano, T., & Dai, D. Y. (2007). The relationship between the big-five model of personality and self-regulated learning strategies. Learning and Individual Differences, 17(1), 69–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2007.02.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Braasch, J. L. G., Goldman, S. R., & Wiley, J. (2013). The influences of text and reader characteristics on learning from refutations in science texts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 561–578. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032627
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brossard, D., Scheufele, D. A., Kim, E., & Lewenstein, B. V. (2009). Religiosity as a perceptual filter: Examining processes of opinion formation about nanotechnology. Public Understanding of Science, 18(5), 546–558. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662507087304
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Broughton, S. H., & Sinatra, G. M. (2009). Text in the science classroom: Promoting engagement to facilitate conceptual change. In M. G. McKeown & L. Kucan (Eds.), Bringing reading research to life (pp. 232–256). Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• *Broughton, S. H., Sinatra, G. M., & Nussbaum, E. M. (2013). Pluto has been a planet my whole life!” Emotions, attitudes, and conceptual change in elementary students’ learning about Pluto’s reclassification. Research in Science Education, 43(2), 529–550. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-011-9274-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Broughton, S. H., Sinatra, G. M., & Reynolds, R. E. (2010). The nature of the refutation text effect: An investigation of attention allocation. The Journal of Educational Research, 103(6), 407–423. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670903383101
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brysbaert, M., & Stevens, M. (2018). Power analysis and effect size in mixed effects models: A tutorial. Journal of Cognition, 1(1), Article 9. https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.10
   Google Scholar
• Butler, A. C., Fazio, L. K., & Marsh, E. J. (2011). The hypercorrection effect persists over a week, but high-confidence errors return. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18(6), 1238–1244. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-011-0173-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butterfield, B., & Metcalfe, J. (2001). Errors committed with high confidence are hypercorrected. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27(6), 1491–1494. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.27.6.1491
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Butterfuss, R., & Kendeou, P. (2020). Reducing interference from misconceptions: The role of inhibition in knowledge revision. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(4), 782–794. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000385
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buzzelli, C., & Johnston, B. (2001). Authority, power, and morality in classroom discourse. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17(8), 873–884. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0742-051X(01)00037-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(1), 116–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Candela, A. (1998). Students’ power in classroom discourse. Linguistics and Education, 10(2), 139–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0898-5898(99)80107-7
   Google Scholar
• Carpenter, S. K., Cepeda, N. J., Rohrer, D., Kang, S. H. K., & Pashler, H. (2012). Using spacing to enhance diverse forms of learning: Review of recent research and implications for instruction. Educational Psychology Review, 24(3), 369–378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-012-9205-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chi, M. T. (1993). Barriers to conceptual change in learning science concepts: A theoretical conjecture. In Proceedings of the fifteenth annual cognitive science society conference (pp. 312–317). Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• *Chi, M. T. H. (2008). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), International handbook of research on conceptual change (1st ed., pp. 61–82). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Clark, D. B. (2006). Longitudinal conceptual change in students’ understanding of thermal equilibrium: An examination of the process of conceptual restructuring. Cognition and Instruction, 24(4), 467–563. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci2404_3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, H. H. (1973). The language-as-fixed-effect fallacy: A critique of language statistics in psychological research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12(4), 335–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(73)80014-3
   Google Scholar
• Cook, D. L. (1962). The Hawthorne effect in educational research. The Phi Delta Kappan, 44(3), 116–122. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20342865
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook, J., & Lewandowsky, S. (2016). Rational irrationality: Modeling climate change belief polarization using Bayesian networks. Topics in Cognitive Science, 8(1), 160–179. https://doi.org/10.1111/tops.12186
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Cordova, J. R., Sinatra, G. M., Jones, S. H., Taasoobshirazi, G., & Lombardi, D. (2014). Confidence in prior knowledge, self-efficacy, interest and prior knowledge: Influences on conceptual change. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 39(2), 164–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.03.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Danielson, R. W., Sinatra, G. M., & Kendeou, P. (2016). Augmenting the refutation text effect with analogies and graphics. Discourse Processes, 53(5–6), 392–414. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163853X.2016.1166334
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Beaugrande, R., & Dressler, W. (1981). Introduction to text linguistics. Longman.
   Google Scholar
• Delaney, P. F., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., & Spirgel, A. (2010). Spacing and testing effects: A deeply critical, lengthy, and at times discursive review of the literature. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 53, 63–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(10)53003-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dempster, F. N. (1988). The spacing effect: A case study in the failure to apply the results of psychological research. American Psychologist, 43(8), 627–634. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.43.8.627
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Diakidoy, I.-A. N., Kendeou, P., & Ioannides, C. (2003). Reading about energy: The effects of text structure in science learning and conceptual change. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28(3), 335–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0361-476X(02)00039-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Diakidoy, I.-A. N., Mouskounti, T., Fella, A., & Ioannides, C. (2016). Comprehension processes and outcomes with refutation and expository texts and their contribution to learning. Learning and Instruction, 41, 60–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.10.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Diakidoy, I.-A. N., Mouskounti, T., & Ioannides, C. (2011). Comprehension and learning from refutation and expository texts. Reading Research Quarterly, 46(1), 22–38. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.46.1.2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Dinsmore, D. L., & Alexander, P. A. (2016). A multidimensional investigation of deep-level and surface-level processing. The Journal of Experimental Education, 84(2), 213–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2014.979126
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• diSessa, A. A. (1988). Knowledge in pieces. In G. Forman & P. B. Pufall (Eds.), The Jean Piaget symposium series. Constructivism in the computer age (pp. 49–70). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• diSessa, A. A. (2013). A bird’s-eye view of the “pieces” vs. “coherence” controversy (from the “pieces” side of the fence). In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), International handbook on conceptual change (2nd ed., pp. 31–49). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• diSessa, A. A., Gillespie, N. M., & Esterly, J. B. (2004). Coherence versus fragmentation in the development of the concept of force. Cognitive Science, 28(6), 843–900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsci.2004.05.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Do, S. L., & Schallert, D. L. (2004). Emotions and classroom talk: Toward a model of the role of affect in students’ experiences of classroom discussions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(4), 619–634. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.4.619
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dole, J., & Niederhauser, D. (1990). Students’ level of commitment to their naïve conceptions and their conceptual change learning from texts. In J. Zutell & S. McCormick (Eds.), Literacy theory and research: Analyses from multiple paradigms (pp. 303–310). National Reading Conference.
   Google Scholar
• *Donovan, A. M., Zhan, J., & Rapp, D. N. (2018). Supporting historical understandings with refutation texts. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.04.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Double, K. S., & Birney, D. P. (2019). Reactivity to measures of metacognition. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 2755. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02755
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebbinghaus, H. (1964). On memory (H. A. Ruger & C. E. Bussenius, Trans.). Dover. (Original work published 1885).
   Google Scholar
• Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., & Chadwick, M. (2020). Can corrections spread misinformation to new audiences? Testing for the elusive familiarity backfire effect. Cognitive Research: Principles & Implications, 5, Article 41. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-020-00241-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fazio, L. K., Rand, D. G., & Pennycook, G. (2019). Repetition increases perceived truth equally for plausible and implausible statements. Psychonomic bulletin & review, 26(5), 1705–1710. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-019-01651-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Ferrero, M., Hardwicke, T. E., Konstantinidis, E., & Vadillo, M. A. (2020). The effectiveness of refutation texts to correct misconceptions among educators. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Applied, 26(3), 411–421. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000258
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Flemming, D., Kimmerle, J., Cress, U., & Sinatra, G. M. (2020). Research is tentative, but that’s okay: Overcoming misconceptions about scientific tentativeness through refutation texts. Discourse Processes, 57(1), 17–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163853X.2019.1629805
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flynn, D. J., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2017). The nature and origins of misperceptions: Understanding false and unsupported beliefs about politics. Political Psychology, 38 (S1), 127–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12394
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fontenelle, G. A., Phillips, A. P., & Lane, D. M. (1985). Generalizing across stimuli as well as subjects: A neglected aspect of external validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70(1), 101–107. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.70.1.101
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Franco, G. M., Muis, K. R., Kendeou, P., Ranellucci, J., Sampasivam, L., & Wang, X. (2012). Examining the influences of epistemic beliefs and knowledge representations on cognitive processing and conceptual change when learning physics. Learning and Instruction, 22(1), 62–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.06.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Frède, V. (2008). Teaching astronomy for pre-service elementary teachers: A comparison of methods. Advances in Space Research, 42(11), 1819–1830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2007.12.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Gill, M. G., Ashton, P. T., & Algina, J. (2004). Changing preservice teachers' epistemological beliefs about teaching and learning in mathematics: An intervention study. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29(2), 164–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2004.01.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Gill, M. G., Trevors, G., Greene, J. A., & Algina, J. (2020). Don’t take it personally? The role of personal relevance in conceptual change. The Journal of Experimental Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2020.1754152
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goering, C. Z. & Thomas, P. L. (Eds.) (2018). Critical media literacy and fake news in post-truth America. Brill Sense. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004365360
   Google Scholar
• Goetz, E. T., Schallert, D. L., Reynolds, R. E., & Radin, D. I. (1983). Reading in perspective: What real cops and pretend burglars look for in a story. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(4), 500–510. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.75.4.500
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gopnik, A., & Wellman, H. M. (1994). The theory theory. In L. A. Hirschfeld & S. A. Gelman (Eds.), Mapping the mind: Domain specificity in cognition and culture. (pp. 257–293). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511752902.011
   Google Scholar
• Grant, M. J., & Booth, A. (2009). A typology of reviews: An analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies. Health Information and Libraries Journal, 26(2), 91–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guess, A., & Coppock, A. (2020). Does counter-attitudinal information cause backlash? Results from three large survey experiments. British Journal of Political Science, 50(4), 1497–1515. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123418000327
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Guzzetti, B. J. (2000). Learning counter-intuitive science concepts: What have we learned from over a decade of research? Reading & Writing Quarterly, 16(2), 89–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/105735600277971
   Google Scholar
• Guzzetti, B. J., Snyder, T. E., Glass, G. V., & Gamas, W. S. (1993). Promoting conceptual change in science: A comparative meta-analysis of instructional interventions from reading education and science education. Reading Research Quarterly, 28(2), 116–159. https://doi.org/10.2307/747886
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haglin, K. (2017). The limitations of the backfire effect. Research & Politics, 4(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168017716547
   Google Scholar
• Hays, M. J., Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2013). When and why a failed test potentiates the effectiveness of subsequent study. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 39(1), 290–296. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028468
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Heddy, B. C., Danielson, R. W., Sinatra, G. M., & Graham, J. (2017). Modifying knowledge, emotions, and attitudes regarding genetically modified foods. The Journal of Experimental Education, 85(3), 513–553. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2016.1260523
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Heddy, B. C., & Sinatra, G. M. (2013). Transforming misconceptions: Using transformative experience to promote positive affect and conceptual change in students learning about biological evolution. Science Education, 97(5), 723–744. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21072
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornsey, M. J. (2020). Why facts are not enough: Understanding and managing the motivated rejection of science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29(6), 583–591. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420969364
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howe, C., McWilliam, D., & Cross, G. (2005). Chance favours only the prepared mind: Incubation and the delayed effects of peer collaboration. British Journal of Psychology, 96(1), 67–93. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712604X15527
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huelser, B. J., & Metcalfe, J. (2012). Making related errors facilitates learning, but learners do not know it. Memory & Cognition, 40(4), 514–527. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-011-0167-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Hynd, C. (2001). Refutational texts and the change process. International Journal of Educational Research, 35(7–8), 699–714. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-0355(02)00010-1
   Google Scholar
• Hynd, C. R., & Alvermann, D. E. (1986a). Prior knowledge activation in refutation and non-refutation text. National Reading Conference Yearbook, 35, 55–60.
   Google Scholar
• Hynd, C., & Alvermann, D. E. (1986b). The role of refutation text in overcoming difficulty with science concepts. Journal of Reading, 29(5), 440–446. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40025804
   Google Scholar
• Hynd, C., McWhorter, J., Phares, V., & Suttles, C. (1994). The role of instructional variables in conceptual change in high school physics topics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31(9), 933–946. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660310908
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hynd, C. R., Qian, G., Ridgeway, V. G., & Pickle, M. (1991). Promoting conceptual change with science texts and discussion. Journal of Reading, 34(8), 596–601. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40014603
   Google Scholar
• Judd, C. M., Westfall, J., & Kenny, D. A. (2012). Treating stimuli as a random factor in social psychology: A new and comprehensive solution to a pervasive but largely ignored problem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(1), 54–69. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028347
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang, S. H. K. (2016). Spaced repetition promotes efficient and effective learning: Policy implications for instruction. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(1), 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732215624708
   Google Scholar
• Karpicke, J. D., & Blunt, J. R. (2011). Retrieval practice produces more learning than elaborative studying with concept mapping. Science, 331(6018), 772–775. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1199327
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kean, J., & Reilly, J. (2014). Item response theory. In F. M. Hammond, J. M. Malec, T. G. Nick, & R. M. Buschbacher (Eds.), Handbook for clinical research: Design, statistics and implementation. (pp. 195–198). Demos Medical Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Keil, F. C. (2006). Explanation and understanding. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 227–254. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190100
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Kendeou, P., Braasch, J. L. G., & Bråten, I. (2016). Optimizing conditions for learning: Situating refutations in epistemic cognition. The Journal of Experimental Education, 84(2), 245–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2015.1027806
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Kendeou, P., Butterfuss, R., Kim, J., & Van Boekel, M. (2019). Knowledge revision through the lenses of the three-pronged approach. Memory & Cognition, 47(1), 33–46. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-018-0848-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kendeou, P., Butterfuss, R., Van Boekel, M., & O’Brien, E. J. (2017). Integrating relational reasoning and knowledge revision during reading. Educational Psychology Review, 29(1), 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016-9381-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Kendeou, P., Muis, K. R., & Fulton, S. (2011). Reader and text factors in reading comprehension processes. Journal of Research in Reading, 34(4), 365–383. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2010.01436.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Kendeou, P., & O’Brien, E. J. (2014). The knowledge revision components (KReC) framework: Processes and mechanisms. In D. N. Rapp & J. L. G. Braasch (Eds.), Processing inaccurate information: Theoretical and applied perspectives from cognitive science and the educational sciences (pp. 353–377). MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• *Kendeou, P., & van den Broek, P. (2007). The effects of prior knowledge and text structure on comprehension processes during reading of scientific texts. Memory & Cognition, 35(7), 1567–1577. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03193491
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Kendeou, P., Walsh, E. K., Smith, E. R., & O’Brien, E. J. (2014). Knowledge revision processes in refutation texts. Discourse Processes, 51(5-6), 374–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163853X.2014.913961
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Kessler, E. D., Braasch, J. L. G., & Kardash, C. M. (2019). Individual differences in revising (and maintaining) accurate and inaccurate beliefs about childhood vaccinations. Discourse Processes, 56(5–6), 415–428. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163853X.2019.1596709
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiley, K., & Vaisey, S. (2020). Measuring stability and change in personal culture using panel data. American Sociological Review, 85(3), 477–506. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122420921538
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Korur, F., Enil, G., & Göçer, G. (2016). Effects of two combined methods on the teaching of basic astronomy concepts. The Journal of Educational Research, 109(2), 205–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2014.946121
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Kowalski, P., & Taylor, A. K. (2009). The effect of refuting misconceptions in the introductory psychology class. Teaching of Psychology, 36(3), 153–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/00986280902959986
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kubinger, K. D., Holocher-Ertl, S., Reif, M., Hohensinn, C., & Frebort, M. (2010). On minimizing guessing effects on multiple-choice items: Superiority of a two solutions and three distractors item format to a one solution and five distractors item format. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 18(1), 111–115. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2389.2010.00493.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larrain, A., Freire, P., Grau, V., López, P., Salvat, I., Silva, M., & Gastellu, V. (2018). The effect of peer-group argumentative dialogue on delayed gains in scientific content knowledge. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2018(162), 67–87. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20263
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• *Lassonde, K. A., Kendeou, P., & O’Brien, E. J. (2016). Refutation texts: Overcoming psychology misconceptions that are resistant to change. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 2(1), 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000054
   Google Scholar
• *Lassonde, K. A., Kolquist, M., & Vergin, M. (2017). Revising psychology misconceptions by integrating a refutation-style text framework into poster presentations. Teaching of Psychology, 44(3), 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628317712754
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leighton, J. P., Gierl, M. J., & Hunka, S. M. (2004). The attribute hierarchy method for cognitive assessment: A variation on Tatsuoka’s rule-space approach. Journal of Educational Measurement, 41(3), 205–237. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1435314, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3984.2004.tb01163.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Lem, S., Kempen, G., Ceulemans, E., Onghena, P., Verschaffel, L., & Van Dooren, W. (2015). Combining multiple external representations and refutational text: An intervention on learning to interpret box plots. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 13(4), 909–926. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-014-9604-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Lem, S., Onghena, P., Verschaffel, L., & Van Dooren, W. (2017). Using refutational text in mathematics education. ZDM, 49(4), 509–518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-017-0843-y
   Google Scholar
• Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Ecker, U. K. H., Albarracín, D., Amazeen, M. A., Kendeou, P., Lombardi, D., Newman, E. J., Pennycook, G., Porter, E., Rand, D. G., Rapp, D. N., Reifler, J., Roozenbeek, J., Schmid, P., Seifert, C. M., Sinatra, G. M., Swire-Thompson, B., van der Linden, S., Vraga, E. K., … Zaragoza, M. S. (2020). The debunking handbook 2020. Databrary. https://doi.org/10.17910/b7.1182
   Google Scholar
• Li, H., Hunter, C. V., & Lei, P.-W. (2016). The selection of cognitive diagnostic models for a reading comprehension test. Language Testing, 33(3), 391–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532215590848
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Linn, M. C., Lewis, C., Tsuchida, I., & Songer, N. B. (2000). Beyond fourth-grade science: Why do U.S. and Japanese students diverge? Educational Researcher, 29(3), 4–14. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X029003004
   Google Scholar
• Lipsey, M. W. (2003). Those confounded moderators in meta-analysis: Good, bad, and ugly. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 587(1), 69–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716202250791
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• List, A., & Alexander, P. A. (2017). Cognitive affective engagement model of multiple source use. Educational Psychologist, 52(3), 182–199. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2017.1329014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Lombardi, D., Danielson, R. W., & Young, N. (2016). A plausible connection: Models examining the relations between evaluation, plausibility, and the refutation text effect. Learning and Instruction, 44, 74–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.03.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKinnon, D. P., & Luecken, L. J. (2008). How and for whom? Mediation and moderation in health psychology. Health Psychology : Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association, 27(2, Suppl), S99–S100. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.27.2(Suppl.).S99
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maria, K., & MacGinitie, W. (1987). Learning from texts that refute the reader’s prior knowledge. Reading Research and Instruction, 26(4), 222–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388078709557912
   Google Scholar
• Marsh, E. J., & Yang, B. W. (2018). Believing things that are not true: A cognitive science perspective on misinformation. In B. G. Southwell, E. A. Thorson, & L. Sheble (Eds.), Misinformation and mass audiences. (pp. 15–34). University of Texas Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mason, L. (2007). Introduction: Bridging the cognitive and sociocultural approaches in research on conceptual change: Is it feasible? Educational Psychologist, 42(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520709336914
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Mason, L., Baldi, R., Di Ronco, S., Scrimin, S., Danielson, R. W., & Sinatra, G. M. (2017). Textual and graphical refutations: Effects on conceptual change learning. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 49, 275–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.03.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Mason, L., Borella, E., Diakidoy, I.-A. N., Butterfuss, R., Kendeou, P., & Carretti, B. (2020). Learning from refutation and standard expository science texts: The contribution of inhibitory functions in relation to text type. Discourse Processes, 57(10), 921–939. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163853X.2020.1826248
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Mason, L., & Gava, M. (2007). Effects of epistemological beliefs and learning text structure on conceptual change. In S. Vosniadou, A. Baltas, & X. Vamvakoussi (Eds.), Advances in learning and instruction series. Reframing the conceptual change approach in learning and instruction (pp. 165–196). Elsevier Science.
   Google Scholar
• *Mason, L., Gava, M., & Boldrin, A. (2008). On warm conceptual change: The interplay of text, epistemological beliefs, and topic interest. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(2), 291–309. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.2.291
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Mason, L., Zaccoletti, S., Carretti, B., Scrimin, S., & Diakidoy, I.-A. N. (2019). The role of inhibition in conceptual learning from refutation and standard expository texts. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 17(3), 483–501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-017-9874-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *McCrudden, M. T. (2012). Readers’ use of online discrepancy resolution strategies. Discourse Processes, 49(2), 107–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163853X.2011.647618
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *McCrudden, M. T., & Kendeou, P. (2014). Exploring the link between cognitive processes and learning from refutational text. Journal of Research in Reading, 37(S1), S116–S140. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2011.01527.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Micheli, P., Wilner, S. J. S., Bhatti, S. H., Mura, M., & Beverland, M. B. (2019). Doing design thinking: Conceptual review, synthesis, and research agenda. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 36(2), 124–148. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpim.12466
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Mikkilä-Erdmann, M. (2001). Improving conceptual change concerning photosynthesis through text design. Learning and Instruction, 11(3), 241–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4752(00)00041-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Mikkilä-Erdmann, M., Penttinen, M., Anto, E., & Olkinuora, E. (2008). Constructing mental models during learning from science text: Eye tracking methodology meets conceptual change. In P. Ifenthaler, P. Pirnay-Dummer, & J. M. Spector (Eds.), Understanding models for learning and instruction: Essays in honor of Norbert M. Seel (pp. 62–77). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• *Miller, B. W. (2015). Using reading times and eye-movements to measure cognitive engagement. Educational Psychologist, 50(1), 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2015.1004068
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, T. M., & Geraci, L. (2014). Improving metacognitive accuracy: How failing to retrieve practice items reduces overconfidence. Consciousness and Cognition, 29, 131–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2014.08.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Motta, M. (2020). Changing minds or changing samples? Disentangling microlevel stability and macrolevel growth in anthropogenic climate change beliefs. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, Article edaa020. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edaa020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Muis, K. R., Etoubashi, N., & Denton, C. A. (2020). The catcher in the lie: The role of emotions and epistemic judgments in changing students’ misconceptions and attitudes in a post-truth era. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 62, Article 101898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101898
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Muis, K. R., Sinatra, G. M., Pekrun, R., Winne, P. H., Trevors, G., Losenno, K. M., & Munzar, B. (2018). Main and moderator effects of refutation on task value, epistemic emotions, and learning strategies during conceptual change. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 55, 155–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.10.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Muller, D. A., Bewes, J., Sharma, M. D., & Reimann, P. (2008). Saying the wrong thing: Improving learning with multimedia by including misconceptions. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24(2), 144–155. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00248.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Murphy, P. K., Long, J. F., Holleran, T. A., & Esterly, E. (2003). Persuasion online or on paper: A new take on an old issue. Learning and Instruction, 13(5), 511–532. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4752(02)00041-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murre, J. M. J., & Dros, J. (2015). Replication and analysis of Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve. PLoS One, 10(7), Article e0120644. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120644
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nisbet, M. C., & Scheufele, D. A. (2009). What's next for science communication? Promising directions and lingering distractions. American Journal of Botany, 96(10), 1767–1778. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.0900041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Ntshalintshali, G. M., & Clariana, R. B. (2020). Paraphrasing refutation text and knowledge form: Examples from repairing relational database design misconceptions. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(5), 2165–2183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09758-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Nussbaum, E. M., Cordova, J. R., & Rehmat, A. P. (2017). Refutation texts for effective climate change education. Journal of Geoscience Education, 65(1), 23–34. https://doi.org/10.5408/15-109.1
   Google Scholar
• Nussbaum, E. M., & Sinatra, G. M. (2003). Argument and conceptual engagement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28(3), 384–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0361-476X(02)00038-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2010). When corrections fail: The persistence of political misperceptions. Political Behavior, 32(2), 303–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-010-9112-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2015). Does correcting myths about the flu vaccine work? An experimental evaluation of the effects of corrective information. Vaccine, 33(3), 459–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.11.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2019). The roles of information deficits and identity threat in the prevalence of misperceptions. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 29(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2018.1465061
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyhan, B., & Zeitzoff, T. (2018). Conspiracy and misperception belief in the Middle East and North Africa. The Journal of Politics, 80(4), 1400–1404. https://doi.org/10.1086/698663
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Palmer, D. H. (2003). Investigating the relationship between refutational text and conceptual change. Science Education, 87(5), 663–684. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.1056
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paris, D., & Alim, H. S. (2014). What are we seeking to sustain through culturally sustaining pedagogy? A loving critique forward. Harvard Educational Review, 84(1), 85–100. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.84.1.982l873k2ht16m77
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Peltier, T. K., Heddy, B. C., & Peltier, C. (2020). Using conceptual change theory to help preservice teachers understand dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 70(1), 62–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-020-00192-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pichert, J. W., & Anderson, R. C. (1977). Taking different perspectives on a story. Journal of Educational Psychology, 69(4), 309–315. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.69.4.309
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pintrich, P. R., Marx, R. W., & Boyle, R. A. (1993). Beyond cold conceptual change: The role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change. Review of Educational Research, 63(2), 167–199. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543063002167
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A., Hewson, P. W., & Gertzog, W. A. (1982). Accommodation of a scientific conception: Toward a theory of conceptual change. Science Education, 66(2), 211–227. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730660207
   Google Scholar
• *Prinz, A., Golke, S., & Wittwer, J. (2019). Refutation texts compensate for detrimental effects of misconceptions on comprehension and metacomprehension accuracy and support transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(6), 957–981. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000329
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raaijmakers, J. G., Schrijnemakers, J. M., & Gremmen, F. (1999). How to deal with “the language-as-fixed-effect fallacy”: Common misconceptions and alternative solutions. Journal of Memory and Language, 41(3), 416–426. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.1999.2650
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapp, D. N., Donovan, A. M., & Salovich, N. A. (2020). Assessing and modifying knowledge: Facts vs. constellations. In P. Van Meter, A. List, D. Lombardi, & P. Kendeou (Eds.), Handbook of learning from multiple representations and perspectives (pp. 443–460). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Rayner, K. (2009). The 35th Sir Frederick Bartlett lecture: Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (2006), 62(8), 1457–1506. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210902816461
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rich, P. R., van Loon, M. H., Dunlosky, J., & Zaragoza, M. S. (2017). Belief in corrective feedback for common misconceptions: Implications for knowledge revision. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43(3), 492–501. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000322
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richland, L. E., Kornell, N., & Kao, L. S. (2009). The pretesting effect: Do unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance learning? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 15(3), 243–257. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roediger, H. L. III., & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(1), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothkopf, E. Z. (1970). The concept of mathemagenic activities. Review of Educational Research, 40(3), 325–336. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543040003325
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothkopf, E. Z., & Bisbicos, E. E. (1967). Selective facilitative effects of interspersed questions on learning from written materials. Journal of Educational Psychology, 58(1), 56–61. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0024117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowland, C. A. (2014). The effect of testing versus restudy on retention: A meta-analytic review of the testing effect. Psychological Bulletin, 140(6), 1432–1463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037559
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawilowsky, S., Kelley, D. L., Blair, R. C., & Markman, B. S. (1994). Meta-analysis and the Solomon four-group design. The Journal of Experimental Education, 62(4), 361–376. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.1994.9944140
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt, R. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1992). New conceptualizations of practice: Common principles in three paradigms suggest new concepts for training. Psychological Science, 3(4), 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00029.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt, W. H., McKnight, C. C., Houang, R. T., Wang, H. C., Wiley, D. E., Cogan, L. S., & Wolfe, R. G. (2001). Why schools matter: A cross-national comparison of curriculum and learning. Jossey-Bass.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, W. H., Wang, H. C., & McKnight, C. C. (2005). Curriculum coherence: An examination of US mathematics and science content standards from an international perspective. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 37(5), 525–559. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022027042000294682
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Schroeder, N. L. (2016). A preliminary investigation of the influences of refutation text and instructional design. Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 21(3), 325–340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-016-9278-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuetze, B. A., Eglington, L. G., & Kang, S. H. K. (2019). Retrieval practice benefits memory precision. Memory, 27(8), 1091–1098. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2019.1623260
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz, M. (1982). Repetition and rated truth value of statements. The American Journal of Psychology, 95(3), 393–407. https://doi.org/10.2307/1422132
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz, M. S., Sadler, P. M., Sonnert, G., & Tai, R. H. (2009). Depth versus breadth: How content coverage in high school science courses relates to later success in college science coursework. Science Education, 93(5), 798–826. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.20328
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shrout, P. E., & Rodgers, J. L. (2018). Psychology, science, and knowledge construction: Broadening perspectives from the replication crisis. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 487–510. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011845
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons, D. J., Shoda, Y., & Lindsay, D. S. (2017). Constraints on generality (COG): A proposed addition to all empirical papers. Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 12(6), 1123–1128. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617708630
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• *Sinatra, G. M., & Broughton, S. H. (2011). Bridging reading comprehension and conceptual change in science education: The promise of refutation text. Reading Research Quarterly, 46(4), 374–393. https://doi.org/10.1002/RRQ.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinatra, G. M., Kienhues, D., & Hofer, B. K. (2014). Addressing challenges to public understanding of science: Epistemic cognition, motivated reasoning, and conceptual change. Educational Psychologist, 49(2), 123–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.916216
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinatra, G. M., & Lombardi, D. (2020). Evaluating sources of scientific evidence and claims in the post-truth era may require reappraising plausibility judgments. Educational Psychologist, 55(3), 120–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2020.1730181
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinatra, G. M., & Mason, L. (2013). Beyond knowledge: Learner characteristics influencing conceptual change. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), International handbook of research on conceptual change (2nd ed., pp. 377–394). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Sinatra, G. M., & Seyranian, V. (2016). Warm change about hot topics: The role of motivation and emotion in attitude and conceptual change about controversial science topics. In L. Corno, & E. M. Anderman (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 245–256). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• *Skopeliti, I., & Vosniadou, S. (2016). The role of categorical information in refutation texts. Journal of Cognitive Science, 17(3), 441–468. https://doi.org/10.17791/jcs.2016.17.3.441
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soderstrom, N. C., & Bjork, R. A. (2015). Learning versus performance: An integrative review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 176–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615569000
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Södervik, I., Virtanen, V., & Mikkilä-Erdmann, M. (2015). Challenges in understanding photosynthesis in a university introductory biosciences class. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 13(4), 733–750. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-014-9571-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sprangers, M., & Hoogstraten, J. (1989). Pretesting effects in retrospective pretest-posttest designs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(2), 265–272. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.74.2.265
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stathopoulou, C., & Vosniadou, S. (2007). Exploring the relationship between physics-related epistemological beliefs and physics understanding. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 32(3), 255–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2005.12.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swire-Thompson, B., DeGutis, J., & Lazer, D. (2020). Searching for the backfire effect: Measurement and design considerations. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 9(3), 286–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.06.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tatsuoka, K. K. (1983). Rule space: An approach for dealing with misconceptions based on item response theory. Journal of Educational Measurement, 20(4), 345–354. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1434951 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3984.1983.tb00212.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Thacker, I., Sinatra, G. M., Muis, K. R., Danielson, R. W., Pekrun, R., Winne, P. H., & Chevrier, M. (2020). Using persuasive refutation texts to prompt attitudinal and conceptual change. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(6), 1085–1099. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000434
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thagard, P. (1989). Explanatory coherence. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12(3), 435–502. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00057046
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thagard, P. (2000). Coherence in thought and action. MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thagard, P. (2006). Hot thought: Mechanisms and applications of emotional cognition. MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thagard, P., & Findlay, S. (2010). Changing minds about climate change: Belief revision coherence, and emotion. In E. J. Olsson & S. Enqvist (Eds.), Belief revision meets philosophy of science (Vol. 21, pp. 329–345). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9609-8_14
   Google Scholar
• *Tippett, C. D. (2010). Refutation text in science education: A review of two decades of research. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 8(6), 951–970. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-010-9203-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Trevors, G. (2020). The roles of identity conflict, emotion, and threat in learning from refutation texts. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3555148
   Google Scholar
• Trevors, G., Feyzi-Behnagh, R., Azevedo, R., & Bouchet, F. (2016). Self-regulated learning processes vary as a function of epistemic beliefs and conditions: Mixed method evidence from eye tracking and concurrent and retrospective reports. Learning and Instruction, 42, 31–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.11.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Trevors, G., & Kendeou, P. (2020). The effects of positive and negative emotional text content on knowledge revision. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 73(9), 1326–1339. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021820913816
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Trevors, G. J., Kendeou, P., Bråten, I., & Braasch, J. L. G. (2017). Adolescents’ epistemic profiles in the service of knowledge revision. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 49, 107–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.01.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Trevors, G. J., Kendeou, P., & Butterfuss, R. (2017). Emotion processes in knowledge revision. Discourse Processes, 54(5-6), 406–426. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163853X.2017.1312201
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Trevors, G., & Muis, K. R. (2015). Effects of text structure, reading goals and epistemic beliefs on conceptual change. Journal of Research in Reading, 38(4), 361–386. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12031
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Trevors, G. J., Muis, K. R., Pekrun, R., Sinatra, G. M., & Winne, P. H. (2016). Identity and epistemic emotions during knowledge revision: A potential account for the backfire effect. Discourse Processes, 53(5–6), 339–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163853X.2015.1136507
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Van Boekel, M., Lassonde, K. A., O'Brien, E. J., & Kendeou, P. (2017). Source credibility and the processing of refutation texts. Memory & Cognition, 45(1), 168–181. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-016-0649-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *van Loon, M., Dunlosky, J., van Gog, T., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & de Bruin, A. B. H. (2015). Refutations in science texts lead to hypercorrection of misconceptions held with high confidence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 42, 39–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.04.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaughn, A. R., Brown, R. D., & Johnson, M. L. (2020). Understanding conceptual change and science learning through educational neuroscience. Mind, Brain, and Education, 14(2), 82–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12237
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Vaughn, A. R., & Johnson, M. L. (2018). Communicating and enhancing teachers’ attitudes and understanding of influenza using refutational text. Vaccine, 36(48), 7306–7315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.10.040
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vlach, H. A. (2014). The spacing effect in children’s generalization of knowledge: Allowing children time to forget promotes their ability to learn. Child Development Perspectives, 8(3), 163–168. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12079
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vlach, H. A., & Sandhofer, C. M. (2012). Distributing learning over time: The spacing effect in children’s acquisition and generalization of science concepts. Child Development, 83(4), 1137–1144. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01781.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Davier, M. (2009). Is there need for the 3PL Model? Guess what? Measurement: Interdisciplinary Research & Perspective, 7(2), 110–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/15366360903117079
   Google Scholar
• Vosniadou, S. (Ed.). (2008). International handbook of research on conceptual change (1st ed.). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Vosniadou, S. (Ed.). (2013). International handbook of research on conceptual change (2nd ed.). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• *Weingartner, K. M., & Masnick, A. M. (2019). Refutation texts: Implying the refutation of a scientific misconception can facilitate knowledge revision. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 58, 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.03.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, R. (2018). Fighting “fake news” in an age of digital disorientation: Towards “real news,” critical media literacy education, and independent journalism for 21st century citizens. In C. Z. Goering & P. L. Thomas (Eds.), Critical media literacy and fake news in post-truth America (pp. 53–65). Brill Sense. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004365360_005
   Google Scholar
• Wood, T., & Porter, E. (2019). The elusive backfire effect: Mass attitudes’ steadfast factual adherence. Political Behavior, 41(1), 135–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9443-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, C., Potts, R., & Shanks, D. R. (2018). Enhancing learning and retrieval of new information: A review of the forward testing effect. NPJ Science of Learning, 3, Article 8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-018-0024-y
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yarkoni, T. (2019). The generalizability crisis. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/jqw35
   Google Scholar
• *Yazbec, A., Borovsky, A., & Kaschak, M. P. (2019). Examining the impact of text style and epistemic beliefs on conceptual change. PLoS One, 14(9), Article e0220766. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220766
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yore, L. D., Craig, M. T., & Maguire, T. O. (1998). Index of science reading awareness: An interactive-constructive model, test verification, and grades 4-8 results. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35(1), 27–51. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2736(199801)35:1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zengilowski, A., Schuetze, B. A., Nash, B. L., & Schallert, D. L. (2021, April 9–12). “My views have slightly changed”: A quantitative-qualitative inquiry into the revision of students’ socio-political beliefs [Paper session]. American Education Research Association Annual Meeting, Virtual Conference.
   Google Scholar
• Zizzo, D. J. (2010). Experimenter demand effects in economic experiments. Experimental Economics, 13(1), 75–98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10683-009-9230-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar