References
- Anderson , WJ , Pleasants , AB and Barton , RA . 1981 . Effect of plane of nutrition on calf birth weight, calf growth rate, and subsequent performance of Angus heifers calving in spring . New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research , 24 : 269 – 275 .
- Anonymous Agricultural Production Statistics 2003 Statistics New Zealand Wellington, NZ 2003 www.stats.govt.nz/ tables/2002-ag-prod/beef-cattle-tables.htm (accessed 25 August 2006)
- Arthur , PF , Archer , JA and Melville , GJ . 2000 . Factors influencing dystocia and prediction of dystocia in Angus heifers selected for yearling growth rate . Australian Journal of Agricultural Research , 51 : 147 – 153 .
- Baker , RL , Carter , AH and Muller , J P . 1981 . Performance of crossbred cows in the Ruakura beef breed evaluation trial . Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production , 41 : 254 – 266 .
- Bell , AW . 2005 . Maternal nutrition, other factors affect birth weight . Feedstuffs , 77 : 10 – 12 .
- Bellows , RA , Short , RE and Richardson , GV . 1982 . Effects of sire, age of dam and gestation feed level on dystocia and postpartum reproduction . Journal of Animal Science , 55 : 18 – 27 .
- Bennett , GL and Gregory , KE . 2001a . Genetic (co)variances for calving difficulty score in composite and parental populations of beef cattle: I. Calving difficulty score, birth weight, weaning weight, and postweaning gain . Journal of Animal Science , 79 : 45 – 51 .
- Bennett , GL and Gregory , KE . 2001b . Genetic (co)variances for calving difficulty score in composite and parental populations of beef cattle: II. Reproductive, skeletal, and carcass traits . Journal of Animal Science , 79 : 52 – 59 .
- Berger , PJ , Cubas , AC , Koehler , KJ and Healey , MH . 1992 . Factors affecting dystocia and early calf mortality in Angus cows and heifers . Journal of Animal Science , 70 : 1775 – 1786 .
- Brinks , JS , Olson , JE and Carroll , EJ . 1973 . Calving difficulty and its association with subsequent productivity in Herefords . Journal of Animal Science , 36 : 11 – 17 .
- Carter , AH and Cox , EH . 1973 . Observations on yearling mating of beef cattle . Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production , 33 : 94 – 112 .
- Cooper , K , Morris , ST and McCutcheon , SN . 1998 . Effect of maternal nutrition during early and mid-gestation on fetal growth . Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production , 58 : 175 – 177 .
- Crews , DH Jr . 2006 . Age of dam and sex of calf adjustments and genetic parameters for gestation length in Charolais cattle . Journal of Animal Science , 84 : 25 – 31 .
- Cubas , AC , Berger , PJ and Healey , MH . 1991 . Genetic parameters for calving ease and survival at birth in Angus field data . Journal of Animal Science , 69 : 3952 – 3958 .
- Cue , RI and Hayes , JF . 1985 . Correlations of various direct and maternal effects for calving ease . Journal of Dairy Science , 68 : 374 – 81 .
- Cumming , B . 1999 . Bull Soundness Structural , NSW , , Australia : NSW Department of Primary Industries . http://www.agric.nsw.gov.au/reader/ bullbuy/bullstructural.htm (accessed 24 October 2006)
- Cundiff , LV , MacNeil , MD , Gregory , KE and Koch , RM . 1986 . Between- and within-breed genetic analysis of calving traits and survival to weaning in beef cattle . Journal of Animal Science , 63 : 27 – 33 .
- Dargatz , DA , Dewell , GA and Mortimer , RG . 2004 . Calving and calving management of beef cows and heifers on cow-calf operations in the United States . Theriogenology , 61 : 997 – 1007 .
- Drennan , MJ . 1979 . “ Effect of plane of nutrition during late pregnancy on the incidence of calving problems in beef cows and heifers ” . In Calving Problems and Early Viability of the Calf: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Co-ordination of Research on Beef Production Held at Freisig, Federal Republic of Germany, May 4, 1977 , Edited by: Hoffman , B , Mason , IL and Schmidt , J . 429 – 443 . The Hague , , Netherlands : Martinus Nijhoff Publishers .
- Dufty , JH . 1972 . Clinical studies on bovine parturition: maternal causes of dystocia and stillbirth in an experimental herd of Hereford cattle . Australian Veterinary Journal , 48 : 1 – 6 .
- Dufty , JH . 1973 . Clinical studies of bovine parturition: foetal aspects . Australian Veterinary Journal , 49 : 177 – 182 .
- Dwyer , CM , Calvert , SK , Farish , M , Donbavand , J and Pickup , HE . 2005 . Breed, litter and parity effects on placental weight and placentome number, and consequences for the neonatal behaviour of the lamb . Theriogenology , 63 : 1092 – 1110 .
- Echternkamp , SE . 1993 . Relationship between placental development and calf birth weight in beef cattle . Animal Reproduction Science , 32 : 1 – 13 .
- Echternkamp , SE and Gregory , KE . 1999 . Effects of twinning on gestation length, retained placenta, and dystocia . Journal of Animal Science , 77 : 39 – 47 .
- Eriksson , S , Nasholm , A , Johansson , K and Philipsson , J . 2004a . Genetic parameters for calving difficulty, stillbirth, and birth weight for Hereford and Charolais at first and later parities . Journal of Animal Science , 82 : 375 – 383 .
- Eriksson , S , Nasholm , A , Johansson , K and Philipsson , J . 2004b . Genetic relationships between calving and carcass traits for Charolais and Hereford cattle in Sweden . Journal of Animal Science , 82 : 2269 – 2276 .
- Gaines , JD , Peschel , D , Kauffman , RG , Schaefer , DM , Badtram , G , Kumi-Diaka , J , Clayton , MK and Milliken , G . 1993 . Pelvic growth, calf birth weight and dystocia in Holstein x Hereford heifers . Theriogenology , 40 : 33 – 41 .
- Garrick , DJ , Pollak , EJ , Quaas , RL and Vleck , LD . 1989 . Variance heterogeneity in direct and maternal weight traits by sex and percent purebred for Simmental- sired calves . Journal of Animal Science , 67 : 2515 – 2528 .
- Hearnshaw , H , Hennessy , DW , Greenwood , PL , Harper , GS and Morris , S . 2001 . Gestation length, birth traits and preweaning growth of Wagyu-, Piedmontese-and Angus-sired calves . Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Animal Breeding and Genetics , 14 : 337 – 340 .
- Heasman , L , Clarke , L , Stephenson , TJ and Symonds , ME . 1999 . The influence of maternal nutrient restriction in early to mid-pregnancy on placental and fetal development in sheep . Proceedings of the Nutrition Society , 58 : 283 – 288 .
- Hodge , PB and Stokoe , J . 1974 . Effect of varying periods of pre-calving nutrition upon the calving performance of Hereford heifers . Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production , 10 : 59 – 64 .
- Hodge , PB , Beasley , RC and Stokoe , J . 1976 . Effect of three levels of grazing nutrition upon calving and subsequent performance in Hereford heifers . Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production , 11 : 245 – 248 .
- Holland , MD and Odde , KG . 1992 . Factors affecting calf birth weight: a review . Theriogenology , 38 : 769 – 798 .
- Johnson , SK , Deutscher , GH and Parkhurst , A . 1988 . Relationships of pelvic structure, body measurements, pelvic area and calving difficulty . Journal of Animal Science , 66 : 1081 – 1088 .
- Joubert , DM and Hammond , J . 1958 . A crossbreeding experiment with cattle, with special reference to the maternal effect in South Devon-Dexter crosses . Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge , 51 : 325 – 341 .
- Khadem , AA , Morris , ST , Purchas , RW , McCutcheon , SN and Parker , WJ . 1996 . Growth, reproduction, and carcass and meat quality characteristics of once-bred Hereford x Friesian and Simmental x Friesian heifers managed for low or high liveweight gain during mid pregnancy . New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research , 39 : 271 – 280 .
- King , BD , Cohen , RDH , McCormac , S and Guenther , CL . 1993 . Maternal factors and the prediction of dystocia in beef heifers . Canadian Journal of Animal Science , 73 : 431 – 435 .
- Kroker , GA and Cummins , LJ . 1979 . The effect of nutritional restriction on Hereford heifers in late pregnancy . Australian Veterinary Journal , 55 : 467 – 476 .
- Laster , DB . 1974 . Factors affecting pelvic size and dystocia in beef cattle . Journal of Animal Science , 38 : 496 – 503 .
- Laster , DB , Glimp , HA , Cundiff , LV and Gregory , KE . 1973 . Factors affecting dystocia and the effects of dystocia on subsequent reproduction in beef cattle . Journal of Animal Science , 36 : 695 – 705 .
- Lowman , BG . 1979 . “ Pre-calving management and feeding of the beef cow in relation to calving problems and viability of the calf ” . In Calving Problems and Early Viability of the Calf: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Co-ordination of Research on Beef Production Held at Freisig, Federal Republic of Germany, May 4, 1977 , Edited by: Hoffman , B , Mason , IL and Schmidt , J . 392 – 407 . The Hague , , Netherlands : Martinus .
- McClintock , SE , Beard , KT , Goddard , ME and Johnston , DJ . 2005 . Interactions between gestation length, calf size, dystocia and calf mortality . Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Animal Breeding and Genetics , 16 : 275 – 278 .
- McFadden , AM , Heuer , C , Jackson , R , West , DM and Parkinson , TJ . 2004 . Reproductive performance of beef cow herds in New Zealand . New Zealand Veterinary Journal , 53 : 39 – 44 .
- McMillan , WH . 1994 . Current and emerging reproductive technologies for beef breeding cows . Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production , 54 : 345 – 350 .
- McMillan , WH and McCall , DG . 1991 . Are yearling heifer mating and more productive beef cow breeds a worthwhile use of winter feed . Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production , 51 : 265 – 269 .
- McMillan , WH , Morris , CA and McCall , DG . 1992 . Modelling herd efficiency in liveweight- selected and control Angus cattle . Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production , 52 : 145 – 147 .
- Meijering , A . 1984 . Dystocia and stillbirth in cattle: a review of causes, relations and implications . Livestock Production Science , 11 : 143 – 177 .
- Meijering , A and Postma , A . 1985 . Responses to sire selection for dystocia . Livestock Production Science , 13 : 251 – 266 .
- Morris , CA , Baker , RL and Bennett , GL . 1986 . Some genetic and non-genetic effects on the first oestrus and pregnancy rate of beef heifers . Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production , 46 : 71 – 75 .
- Morris , CA , Baker , RL , Hickey , SM , Johnson , DL , Cullen , NG and Wilson , JA . 1993 . Evidence of genotype by environment interaction for reproductive and maternal traits in beef cattle . Animal Production , 56 : 69 – 83 .
- Morris , CA , Smeaton , DC and Pleasants , AB . 2004 . The effect of pre-calving and post-calving nutritional regimes on calf birth weight and pre-weaning growth . Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production , 64 : 36 – 38 .
- Naazie , A , Makarechian , M and Berg , RT . 1991 . Genetic, phenotypic, and environmental parameter estimates of calving difficulty, weight, and measures of pelvic size in beef heifers . Journal of Animal Science , 69 : 4793 – 4800 .
- Newman , S and Deland , M P . 1991 . Lifetime productivity of crossbred cows. 2. Age and weight at first oestrus, calf birth weight, assisted calvings, calving interval and reproduction rate . Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture , 31 : 293 – 300 .
- Nicol , AM and Nicoll , GB . 1987 . “ Pastures for beef cattle ” . In Livestock Feeding on Pasture , Edited by: Nicol , AM . 119 – 132 . Christchurch , , NZ : New Zealand Society of Animal Production .
- Nix , JM , Spitzer , JC , Grimes , LW , Burns , GL and Plyler , BB . 1998 . A retrospective analysis of factors contributing to calf mortality and dystocia in beef cattle . Theriogenology , 49 : 1515 – 1523 .
- Nugent , RA III and Notter , DR . 1991 . Body measurements of crossbred calves sired by Simmental bulls divergently selected for progeny first-calf calving ease in relation to birth weight . Journal of Animal Science , 69 : 2422 – 2433 .
- Odde , KG . 1996 . Reducing neonatal calf losses through selection, nutrition and management . Agri-Practice , 17 : 12 – 15 .
- Paputungan , U , Makarechian , M and Liu , MF . 1999 . Effects of sire birth weight on calving difficulty and maternal performance of their female progeny . Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences , 12 : 5 – 8 .
- Parminter , TG , Power , MPB and Shaw , DC . 1993 . The effects on adoption of beef breeding cow technologies of selected farm business standards, farmer demographics, and farmer beliefs . Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production , 53 : 121 – 125 .
- Pattullo , DA . 1973 . Perinatal deaths of calves born to heifers mated as yearlings . Australian Veterinary Journal , 49 : 427 – 432 .
- Philipsson , J . 1976 a . Calving performance and calf mortality . Livestock Production Science , 3 : 319 – 331 .
- Philipsson , J . 1976 b . Studies on calving difficulty, stillbirth and associated factors in Swedish cattle breeds. III. Genetic parameters . Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica , 26 : 211 – 220 .
- Philipsson , J , Foulley , JL , Lederer , J , Liboriussen , T and Osinga , A . 1979 . Sire evaluation standards and breeding strategies for limiting dystocia and stillbirth. Report of an EEC/EAAP working group . Livestock Production Science , 6 : 111 – 127 .
- Phocas , F and Laloe , D . 2003 . Evaluation models and genetic parameters for calving difficulty in beef cattle . Journal of Animal Science , 81 : 933 – 938 .
- Phocas , F and Laloe , D . 2004 . Genetic parameters for birth and weaning traits in French specialized beef cattle breeds . Livestock Production Science , 89 : 121 – 128 .
- Pleasants , AB and Barton , RA . 1987 . Effect of pre-calving liveweight gain of Angus heifers calving at two years of age on their subsequent milk yield and calf growth rate . New Zealand Journal of Experimental Agriculture , 15 : 151 – 153 .
- Pleasants , AB and Barton , RA . 1992 . Precalving nutrition of heavy two year old Angus heifers weighing 415 kg at calving . Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production , 52 : 303 – 305 .
- Price , TD and Wiltbank , JN . 1978 . Dystocia in cattle. A review and implications . Theriogenology , 9 : 195 – 219 .
- Prior , RL and Laster , DB . 1979 . Development of the bovine fetus . Journal of Animal Science , 48 : 1546 – 1553 .
- Pryce , JE , Harris , BL , Sim , S and McPherson , AW . 2006 . Genetics of stillbirth in dairy calves . Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production , 66 : 98 – 102 .
- Rabiee , AR , Macmillan , KL and Schwarzenberger , F . 2001 . The effect of level of feed intake on progesterone clearance rate by measuring faecal progesterone metabolites in grazing dairy cows . Animal Reproduction Science , 67 : 205 – 214 .
- Rice , LE . 1994 . Dystocia-related risk factors . Veterinary Clinics of North America, Food Animal Practice , 10 : 53 – 68 .
- Rice , LE and Wiltbank , JN . 1972 . Factors affecting dystocia in beef heifers . Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association , 161 : 1348 – 1358 .
- Robinson , JJ . 1977 . The influence of maternal nutrition on ovine foetal growth . Proceedings of the Nutrition Society , 36 : 9 – 16 .
- Rutter , LM , Ray , DF and Roubicek , CB . 1983 . Factors affecting and prediction of dystocia in Charolais heifers . Journal of Animal Science , 57 : 1077 – 1083 .
- Sawyer , GJ , Barker , DJ and Morris , RJ . 1991 . Performance of young breeding cattle in commercial herds in the south-west of Western Australia. 3. Calf growth, dystocia, and their relationship with production and fertility measurements in first-calf heifers . Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture , 31 : 455 – 4565 .
- Schlote , W and Hassig , H . 1979 . “ Investigations on the relationships of body measurements and weight of heifer and calf to calving difficulties in German Simmental (Fleckvieh) cattle ” . In Preliminary results of the EEC Project No. 320 of the beef production programme , Edited by: Hoffman , B , Mason , IL and Schmidt , J . 220 – 229 . The Hague , , Netherlands : Martinus .
- Singh , J , Singh , B , Wadhwa , M and Bakshi , MPS . 2003 . Effect of level of feeding on the performance of crossbred cows during pre- and post-partum periods . Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences , 16 : 1749 – 1754 .
- Smith , GM , Laster , DB and Gregory , KE . 1976 . Characterization of biological types of cattle. 1. Dystocia and preweaning growth . Journal of Animal Science , 43 : 27 – 36 .
- Spitzer , JC , Morrison , DG , Wettemann , RP and Faulkner , LC . 1995 . Reproductive responses and calf birth and weaning weights as affected by body condition at parturition and postpartum weight gain in primiparous beef cows . Journal of Animal Science , 73 : 1251 – 1257 .
- Sundstrom , B . 2002 . BREEDPLAN International Beef Recording Scheme: Calving Ease EBVs , Armidale , , Australia : New South Wales Agriculture, Animal Breeding Research Institute .
- Donkersgoed , J Van . 1992 . A critical analysis of pelvic measurements and dystocia in beef heifers . Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian , 14 : 405 – 409 .
- Vleck , LD Van , St , Louis D and Miller , JI . 1977 . Expected phenotypic response in weaning weight of beef calves from selection for direct and maternal genetic effects . Journal of Animal Science , 44 : 360 – 367 .
- Wallace , JM , Bourke , DA , Aitken , R P and Cruickshank , MA . 1999 . Switching maternal dietary intake at the end of the first trimester has profound effects on placental development and fetal growth in adolescent ewes carrying singleton fetuses . Biology of Reproduction , 61 : 101 – 110 .
- Wallace , JM , Regnault , TRH , Limesand , SW , Hay , WW and Anthony , RV . 2005 . Investigating the causes of low birth weight in contrasting ovine paradigms . Journal of Physiology London , 565 : 19 – 26 .
- Whittier , WD , Eller , AL and Beal , WE . 1994 . Management changes to reduce dystocia in virgin beef heifers . Agri-Practice , 15 : 26 – 32 .
- Wiltbank , JN and Remmenga , EE . 1982 . Calving difficulty and calf survival in beef cows fed two energy levels . Theriogenology , 17 : 587 – 602 .
- Wu , GY , Bazer , FW , Cudd , TA , Meininger , CJ and Spencer , TE . 2004 . Maternal nutrition and fetal development . Journal of Nutrition , 134 : 2169 – 2172 .