264
Views
7
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Hunter-gatherers on the basin’s edge: a preliminary look at Holocene human occupation of Nangara-Komba Shelter, Central African Republic

, ORCID Icon, , , , , , , & show all
Pages 4-33 | Received 20 Aug 2020, Accepted 17 Oct 2020, Published online: 13 Jan 2021

References

  • Barham, L. and Mitchell, P.J. 2008. The First Africans: African Archaeology from the Earliest Toolmakers to Most Recent Foragers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Bayle des Hermens, R. 1975. Recherches Préhistoriques en République Centrafricaine (Tome 3). Paris: Klincksieck.
  • Bayle des Hermens, R. and Lanfranchi, R. 1978. “L'abri tshitolien de Ntadi Yomba (République Populaire du Congo).” L’Anthropologie 82: 539–564.
  • Bostoen, K., Clist, B., Doumenge, C., Grollemund, R., Hombert, J.M., Muluwa, J.K. and Maley, J. 2015. “Middle to late Holocene paleoclimatic change and the early Bantu expansion in the rain forests of western Central Africa.” Current Anthropology 56: 354–384.
  • Bremond, L., Bodin, S.C., Bentaleb, I., Favier, C. and Canal, S. 2017. “Past tree cover of the Congo Basin recovered by phytoliths and δ13C along soil profiles.” Quaternary International 434: 91–101.
  • Brncic, T.M., Willis, K.J., Harris, D.J., Telfer, M.W. and Bailey, R.M. 2009. “Fire and climate change impacts on lowland forest composition in northern Congo during the last 2580 years from palaeoecological analyses of a seasonally flooded swamp.” The Holocene 19: 79–89.
  • Brncic, T.M., Willis, K.J., Harris, D.J. and Washington, R. 2007. “Culture or climate? The relative influences of past processes on the composition of the lowland Congo rainforest.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 362: 229–242.
  • Bronk Ramsey, C. 2017. “OxCal 4.3 manual.” https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/OxCal.html. Site accessed 27 February 2020.
  • Clist, B., Bostoen, K., de Maret, P., Eggert, M.K.H., Höhn, A., Mindzié, C.M., Neumann, K. and Seidensticker, D. 2018. “Did human activity really trigger the late Holocene rainforest crisis in Central Africa?” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 115: E4733-E4734.
  • Cornelissen. E. 1997. “Central African transitional cultures.” In Encyclopedia of Precolonial Africa, edited by J.C. Vogel, 312-320. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press.
  • Cornelissen, E. 2003. “On microlithic quartz industries at the end of the Pleistocene in Central Africa: the evidence from Shum Laka (NW Cameroon).” African Archaeological Review 20: 1–24.
  • Cornelissen, E. 2018. “L’industrie en quartz de l’Holocène ancien au Bas-Congo.” In Une Archéologie des Provinces Septentrionales du Royaume Kongo, edited by B. Clist, P. de Maret and K. Bostoen, 31–44. Oxford: Archaeopress.
  • D'Andrea, A.C., Logan, A.L. and Watson, D.J. 2006. “Oil palm and prehistoric subsistence in tropical West Africa.” Journal of African Archaeology 4: 195–222.
  • David, N. 1981. “The archaeological background of Cameroonian history.” In The Contribution of Ethnological Research to the History of Cameroon Cultures, edited by C. Tardits, 79–98. Paris: Editions du CNRS.
  • David, N. 1993. “Rop Rock Shelter: re-excavation and reassessment.” In Proceedings of the 9th Congress of the Panafrican Association of Prehistory and Related Studies, edited by B. Andah, P. de Maret and R. Soper, 146–152. Ibadan: Rex Charles Publications.
  • de Maret, P. 1986. “The Ngovo Group: an industry with polished stone tools and pottery in Lower Zaïre.” African Archaeological Review 4: 103–133.
  • de Maret, P., Asombang, R., Cornelissen, E., Lavachery, P. and Moeyersons, J. 1995. “Continuing research at Shum Laka rock shelter, Cameroon (1993–1994 field season).” Nyame Akuma 43: 2–3.
  • de Maret, P., Clist, B. and Van Neer, W. 1987. “Résultat des premières fouilles dans les abris de Shum Laka et d’Abeke au Nord-Ouest du Cameroun.” L’Anthropologie 91: 559–584.
  • Destro-Bisol, G., Coia, V., Boschi, I., Verginelli, F., Caglià, A., Pascali, V., Spedini, G. and Calafell, F. 2004. “The analysis of variation of mtDNA hypervariable region 1 suggests that eastern and western pygmies diverged before the Bantu expansion.” The American Naturalist 163: 212–226.
  • Eggert, M.K.H. 1987. “Imbonga and Batalimo: ceramic evidence for early settlement of the equatorial rain forest.” African Archaeological Review 5: 129–145.
  • Eggert, M.K.H. 1992. “The Central African rain forest: historical speculation and archaeological facts.” World Archaeology 24: 1–24.
  • Eggert, M.K.H. 2014. “The archaeology of the Central African rainforest: its current state.” In The Cambridge World Prehistory, Volume 1, edited by A.C. Renfrew and P. Bahn, 183–203. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Eggert, M.K.H. 2015. “Comment on ‘Middle to late Holocene paleoclimatic change and the early Bantu expansion in the rain forests of western Central Africa’ by K. Bostoen et al.” Current Anthropology 56: 369–370.
  • Ehret, C. 2015. “Bantu history: big advance, although with a chronological contradiction.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 112: 13428–13429.
  • Elenga, H., Schwartz, D. and Vincens, A. 1994. “Pollen evidence of late Quaternary vegetation and inferred climate changes in Congo.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 109: 345–356.
  • Garcin, Y., Deschamps, P., Ménot, G., de Saulieu, G., Schefuß, E., Sebag, D., Dupont, L.M., Oslisly, R., Brademann, B., Mbusnum, K.G. and Onana, J-M. 2018. “Reply to Clist et al.: human activity is the most probable trigger of the late Holocene rainforest crisis in western Central Africa.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 115: 3261–3266.
  • Gifford-Gonzalez, D.P., Damrosch, D.B., Damrosch, D.R., Pryor, J. and Thunen, R.L. 1985. “The third dimension in site structure: an experiment in trampling and vertical dispersal.” American Antiquity 50: 803–818.
  • Giresse, P., Maley, J. and Chepstow-Lusty, A. 2020. “Understanding the 2500 yr BP rainforest crisis in West and Central Africa in the framework of the late Holocene: pluridisciplinary analysis and multi-archive reconstruction.” Global and Planetary Change doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103257
  • Gond, V., Fayolle, A., Pennec, A., Cornu, G., Mayaux, P., Camberlin, P., Doumenge, C., Fauvet, N. and Gourlet-Fleury, S. 2013. “Vegetation structure and greenness in Central Africa from Modis multi-temporal data.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 368: 20120309.
  • Grollemund, R., Branford, S., Bostoen, K., Meade, A., Venditti, C. and Pagel, M. 2015. “Bantu expansion shows that habitat alters the route and pace of human dispersals.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 112: 13296–13301.
  • Heimlich, G. 2016. “The anthropology and history of rock art in the Lower Congo in perspective.” Antiquity 90: 1270–1285.
  • Heimlich, G., Richardin, P., Gandolfo, N., Laval, E. and Menu, M. 2013. “First direct radiocarbon dating of the lower Congo rock art (Democratic Republic of the Congo).” Radiocarbon 55: 1383–1390.
  • Holden, C.J. 2002. “Bantu language trees reflect the spread of farming across sub-Saharan Africa: a maximum-parsimony analysis.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 269: 793–799.
  • Kahlheber, S., Bostoen, K. and Neumann, K. 2009. “Early plant cultivation in the Central African rain forest: first millennium BC pearl millet from south Cameroon.” Journal of African Archaeology 7: 253–272.
  • Kahlheber, S., Eggert, M.K.H., Seidensticker, D. and Wotzka, H-P. 2014. “Pearl millet and other plant remains from the Early Iron Age site of Boso-Njafo (inner Congo Basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo).” African Archaeological Review 31: 479–512.
  • Kay, A.U. and Kaplan, J.O. 2015. “Human subsistence and land use in sub-Saharan Africa, 1000 BC to AD 1500: a review, quantification, and classification.” Anthropocene 9: 14–32.
  • Kiahtipes, C.A. 2018. “Microbotanical assessment of anthropogenic impacts in the Ngotto forest, Central African Republic during the last millennium AD.” In Plants and People in the African Past, edited by A.M. Mercuri, A.C. D’Andrea, R. Fornaciari and A. Höhn, 481–502. Cham: Springer.
  • Kuete, V. 2017. “Canarium schweinfurthii.” In Medicinal Spices and Vegetables from Africa: Therapeutic Potential against Metabolic, Inflammatory, Infectious and Systemic Diseases, edited by V. Kuete, 379–384. London: Academic Press.
  • Lanfranchi, R., Ndanga, J-P. and Zana, H. 1998. “New 14C datings of iron metallurgy in the Central African dense forest.” In Resource Use in the Trinational Sangha River Region of Equatorial Africa: Histories, Knowledge, Forms, and Institutions, edited by H.E. Eves, R. Hardin and S. Rupp, 41–50. New Haven: Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies.
  • Lavachery, P. 2001. “The Holocene archaeological sequence of Shum Laka rock shelter (Grassfields, western Cameroon).” African Archaeological Review 18: 213–247.
  • Lavachery, P. and Cornelissen, E. 2000. “Natural and cultural spatial patterning in the late Holocene deposits of Shum Laka Rock Shelter, Cameroon.” Journal of Field Archaeology 27: 153–168.
  • Lavachery, P., MacEachern, S., Bouimon, T., Gouem, B.G., Kinyock, P., Mbairo, J. and Nkonkonda, O. 2005. “Komé to Ebomé: archaeological research for the Chad Export Project, 1999-2003.” Journal of African Archaeology 3: 175–193.
  • Lézine, A.M., Holl, A.F.C., Lebamba, J., Vincens, A., Assi-Khaudjis, C., Février, L. and Sultan, E. 2013. “Temporal relationship between Holocene human occupation and vegetation change along the northwestern margin of the Central African rainforest.” Comptes Rendus Géoscience 345: 327–335.
  • Lipson, M., Ribot, I., Mallick, S., Rohland, N., Olalde, I., Adamski, N., Broomandkhoshbacht, N., Lawson, A.M., López, S., Oppenheimer, J. and Stewardson, K. 2020. “Ancient West African foragers in the context of African population history.” Nature 577: 665–670.
  • Livingstone Smith, A. 2007. “Histoire du décor à la roulette en Afrique subsaharienne.” Journal of African Archaeology 5: 189–216.
  • Livingstone Smith, A., Cornelissen, E., de Francquen, C., Nikis, N., Mees, F., Mukendi, J.T., Beeckman, H., Bourland, N. and Hubau, W. 2017. “Forests and rivers: the archaeology of the north eastern Congo.” Quaternary International 448: 95–116.
  • Lupo, K.D., Fancher, J.M. and Schmitt, D.N. 2013. “The taphonomy of resource intensification: zooarchaeological implications of resource scarcity among Bofi and Aka forest foragers.” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 20: 420–447.
  • Lupo, K.D., Kiahtipes, C.A. Schmitt, D.N., Ndanga, J-P., Young, D.C., and Simiti, B. 2018. “An elusive record exposed: radiocarbon chronology of late Holocene human settlement in the northern Congo Basin, southern Central African Republic.” Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 53: 209–227.
  • Lupo, K.D., Ndanga, J-P. and Kiahtipes, C.A. 2014. “On late Holocene population interactions in the northwestern Congo Basin: when, how and why does the ethnographic pattern begin?” In Congo Basin Hunter-Gatherers: Cultural, Biological and Ecological Approaches to Forest Forager Diversity, edited by B.S. Hewlett, 59–84. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
  • Lupo, K.D. and Schmitt, D.N. 2005. “Small prey hunting and zooarchaeological measures of taxonomic diversity and abundance: ethnoarchaeological evidence from Central African forest foragers.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 24: 335–353.
  • Lupo, K.D., Schmitt, D.N., Kiahtipes, C.A., Ndanga, J-P., Young, D.C. and Simiti, B. 2015. “On intensive late Holocene iron mining and production in the northern Congo Basin and the environmental consequences associated with metallurgy in Central Africa.” PLoS ONE 10(7): e0132632.
  • MacDonald, K.C. 1997. “Korounkorokalé revisited: the Pays Mande and the West African microlithic technocomplex.” African Archaeological Review 14: 161–200.
  • Maley, J. 2002. “A catastrophic destruction of African forests about 2,500 years ago still exerts a major influence on present vegetation formations.” Institute of Development Studies Bulletin 33: 13–30.
  • Maley, J., Doumenge, C., Giresse, P., Mahé, G., Philippon, N., Hubau, W., Lokonda, M.O., Tshibamba, J.M. and Chepstow-Lusty, A. 2018. “Late Holocene forest contraction and fragmentation in central Africa.” Quaternary Research 89: 43–59.
  • Malhi, Y. 2018. “Ancient deforestation in the green heart of Africa.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 115: 3202–3204.
  • Mbida, C.M., Van Neer, W., Doutrelepont, H. and Vrydaghs, L. 2000. “Evidence for banana cultivation and animal husbandry during the first millennium BC in the forest of southern Cameroon.” Journal of Archaeological Science 27: 151–162.
  • Mercader, J. 2003. “Foragers of the Congo: the early settlement of the Ituri Forest.” In Under the Canopy: The Archaeology of Tropical Rain Forests, edited by J. Mercader, 93–116. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
  • Mercader, J. and Brooks, A.S. 2001. “Across forests and savannas: later stone age assemblages from Ituri and Semliki, Democratic Republic of Congo.” Journal of Anthropological Research 57: 197–217.
  • Mercader, J., Garcia-Heras, M. and González-Alvarez, I. 2000b. “Ceramic tradition in the African forest: characterisation analysis of ancient and modern pottery from Ituri, D.R. Congo.” Journal of Archaeological Science 27: 163–182.
  • Mercader, J., Martí, R., González, I.J., Sánchez, A. and García, P. 2003. “Archaeological site formation in rain forests: insights from the Ituri rock shelters, Congo.” Journal of Archaeological Science 30: 45–65.
  • Mercader, J., Rovira, S. and Gómez-Ramos, P. 2000a. “Forager-farmer interaction and ancient iron metallurgy in the Ituri rainforest, Democratic Republic of Congo.” Azania 35: 107–122.
  • Morin-Rivat, J., Biwolé, A., Gorel, A.P., Vleminckx, J., Gillet, J.F., Bourland, N., Hardy, O.J., Smith, A.L., Daïnou, K., Dedry, L. and Beeckman, H. 2016. “High spatial resolution of late-Holocene human activities in the moist forests of central Africa using soil charcoal and charred botanical remains.” The Holocene 26: 1954–1967.
  • Morin-Rivat, J., Fayolle, A., Favier, C., Bremond, L., Gourlet-Fleury, S., Bayol, N., Lejuene, P., Beeckman, H. and Doucet, J-L. 2017. “Present-day Central African forest is a legacy of the 19th century human history.” eLife 6: e20343.
  • Munsell Soil Color Charts. 1990. Baltimore: Kollmorgen Instruments Corporation.
  • Ndanga, J-P. 2017. “Archaeological exploration in an urban African context: the case of Bangui in the Central African Republic.” In Field Manual for African Archaeology, edited by A. Livingstone Smith, E. Cornelissen, O.P. Gosselain and S. MacEachern, 56–59. Tervuren: Royal Museum for Central Africa.
  • Neumann, K. 2015. “Comment on ‘Middle to late Holocene paleoclimatic change and the early Bantu expansion in the rain forests of western Central Africa’ by K. Bostoen et al.” Current Anthropology 56: 374–375.
  • Neumann, K., Bostoen, K., Höhn, A., Kahlheber, S., Ngomanda, A. and Tchiengué, B. 2012. “First farmers in the Central African rainforest: a view from southern Cameroon.” Quaternary International 249: 53–62.
  • Ngbolua, K-N., Moke, L.E., Lumande, J.K. and Mpiana, P.T. 2015. “Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. (Burseraceae): an updated review and future direction for sickle cell disease.” Journal of Advancement in Medical and Life Sciences 3(3): 1–5.
  • Ngomanda, A., Chepstow-Lusty, A., Makaya, M.V., Favier, C., Schevin, P., Maley, J., Fontugne, M., Oslisly, R. and Jolly, D. 2009. “Western equatorial African forest-savanna mosaics: a legacy of late Holocene climatic change?” Climate of the Past 5: 647–659.
  • Oslisly, R., White, L., Bentaleb, I., Favier, C., Fontugne, M., Gillet, J.F. and Sebag, D. 2013. “Climatic and cultural changes in the west Congo Basin forests over the past 5000 years.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 368: 20120304.
  • Pargeter, J. 2016. “Lithic miniaturization in late Pleistocene southern Africa.” Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 10: 221–236.
  • Patin, E., Siddle, K. J, Laval, G., Quach, H., Harmant, C., Becker, N., Froment, A., Régnault, B., Lemée, L., Gravel, S. and Hombert, J.M. 2014. “The impact of agricultural emergence on the genetic history of African rainforest hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists.” Nature Communications 5: 1–10.
  • Reimer, P.J., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J.W., Blackwell, P.G., Ramsey, C.B., Grootes, P.M., Guilderson, T.P., Haflidason, H., Hajdas, I., Hatté, C., Heaton, T.J., Hoffmann, D.L., Hogg, A.G., Hughen, K.A., Kaiser, K.F., Kromer, B., Manning, S.W., Niu, M., Reimer, R.W., Richards, D.A., Scott, E.M., Southon, J.R., Staff, R.A., Turney, C.S.M. and van der Plicht, J. 2013. “IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0–50,000 years cal BP.” Radiocarbon 55: 1869–1887.
  • Runge, J. 2002. “Holocene landscape history and palaeohydrology evidenced by stable carbon isotope (δ13C) analysis of alluvial sediments in the Mbari valley (5 N/23 E), Central African Republic.” Catena 48: 67–87.
  • Russell, T., Silva, F. and Steele, J. 2014. “Modelling the spread of farming in the Bantu-speaking regions of Africa: an archaeology-based phylogeography.” PLoS ONE 9(1): e87854.
  • Salzmann, U. and Hoelzmann, P. 2005. “The Dahomey Gap: an abrupt climatically induced rain forest fragmentation in West Africa during the late Holocene.” The Holocene 15: 190–199.
  • Schmitt, D.N. and Lupo, K.D. 2008. “Do faunal remains reflect socioeconomic status? An ethnoarchaeological study among Central African farmers in the northern Congo Basin.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 27: 315–325.
  • Schmitt, D.N., Lupo, K.D., Ndanga, J-P., Young, D.C., Kiahtipes, C.A., Amaye, G.T. and Nguerede, L.P. 2019. “An elusive record further exposed: additional excavations and chronometric data on human settlement in the northern Congo Basin rain forest, southern Central African Republic.” Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 54: 55–74.
  • Schwartz, D. 1992. “Assèchement climatique vers 3000 B.P. et expansion Bantu en Afrique centrale atlantique: quelques réflexions.” Bulletin de la Societé Géologique de France 163: 353–361.
  • Seidensticker, D. 2016. “Archaeology and history in Iron Age settlements in the Congo Basin.” In African Archaeology without Frontiers, edited by K. Sadr, A.B. Esterhuysen and C. Sievers, 114–126. Johannesburg: Wits University Press.
  • Stahl, A.B. 1985. “Reinvestigation of Kintampo 6 rock shelter, Ghana: implications for the nature of culture change.” African Archaeological Review 3: 117–150.
  • Van Neer, W. and Lanfranchi, R. 1985. “Etude de la faune découverte dans l’abri tshitolien de Ntadi Yomba (République Populaire du Congo).” L'Anthropologie 89: 351–364.
  • Van Noten, F. 1977. “Excavations at Matupi cave.” Antiquity 51: 35–40.
  • Verdu, P., Austerlitz, F., Estoup, A., Vitalis, R., Georges, M., Théry, S., Froment, A., Le Bomin, S., Gessain, A., Hombert, J.M. and Van der Veen, L. 2009. “Origins and genetic diversity of pygmy hunter-gatherers from western Central Africa.” Current Biology 19: 312–318.
  • Villa, P. and Courtin, J. 1983. “The interpretation of stratified sites: a view from underground.” Journal of Archaeological Science 10: 267–281.
  • Vincens, A., Schwartz, D., Elenga, H., Reynaud-Farrera, I., Alexandre, A., Bertaux, J., Mariotti, A., Martin, L., Meunier, J. D., Nguetsop, F. and Servant, M. 1999. “Forest response to climate changes in Atlantic Equatorial Africa during the last 4000 years BP and inheritance on the modern landscapes.” Journal of Biogeography 26: 879–885.
  • Vleminckx, J., Morin-Rivat, J., Biwolé, A.B., Daïnou, K., Gillet, J.F., Doucet, J.L., Drouet, T. and Hardy, O.J. 2014. “Soil charcoal to assess the impacts of past human disturbances on tropical forests.” PLoS ONE 9(11): e108121.
  • White, F. 1979. “The Guineo-Congolian region and its relationships to other phytochoria.” Bulletin du Jardin Botanique National de Belgique/Bulletin van de Nationale Plantentuin van Belgie 49: 11–55.
  • White, F. 1983. The vegetation of Africa. Paris: UNESCO.
  • Willis, K.J., Gillson, L. and Brncic, T.M. 2004. “How ‘virgin’ is virgin rainforest?” Science 304: 402–403.
  • Wotzka, H.-P. 1995. Studien zur Archäologie deszentralafrikanischen Regenwaldes: Die Keramikes inneren Zaïre-Beckens und ihre Stellung im Kontextder Bantu-Expansion. Köln: Heinrich-Barth-Institut.
  • Wright, D.K., MacEachern, S., Ambrose, S.H., Choi, J., Choi, J.H., Lang, C. and Wang, H. 2019. “Iron Age landscape changes in the Benoué River Valley, Cameroon.” Quaternary Research 92: 323–339.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.