269
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Landscape-scale perspectives on Stone Age behavioural change from the Tankwa Karoo, South Africa

ORCID Icon
Pages 304-343 | Received 10 Aug 2020, Accepted 11 Mar 2021, Published online: 03 Sep 2021

References

  • Adelsberger, K.A. and Smith, J.R. 2009. “Desert pavement development and landscape stability on the Eastern Libyan Plateau, Egypt.” Geomorphology 107: 178–194.
  • Archer, W. and Braun, D.R. 2010. “Variability in bifacial technology at Elandsfontein, Western Cape, South Africa: a geometric morphometric approach.” Journal of Archaeological Science 37: 201–209.
  • Bar-Yosef, O. and Kuhn, S.L. 1999. “The big deal about blades: laminar technologies and human evolution.” American Anthropologist 101: 322–338.
  • Binford, L.R. 1979. “Organization and formation processes: looking at curated technologies.” Journal of Anthropological Research 35: 255–273.
  • Blinkhorn, J., Achyuthan, H. and Ajithprasad, P. 2015. “Middle Palaeolithic point technologies in the Thar Desert, India.” Quaternary International 382: 237–249.
  • Boëda, E. 1993. “Le débitage discoïde et le débitage Levallois récurrent centripède.” Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 90: 392–404.
  • Bousman, C.B. and Brink, J.S. 2018. “The emergence, spread, and termination of the Early Later Stone Age event in South Africa and southern Namibia.” Quaternary International 495: 116–135.
  • Bradshaw, P.L. and Cowling, R.M. 2014. “Landscapes, rock types, and climate of the Greater Cape Floristic Region.” In Fynbos: Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation of a Megadiverse Region, edited by N. Allsopp, J.F. Colville and G.A. Verboom, 26–46. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Braun, D.R., Levin, N.E., Stynder, D.D., Herries, A.I.R., Archer, W., Forrest, F., Roberts, D.L., Bishop, L.C., Matthews, T., Lehmann, S.B., Pickering, R. and Fitzsimmons, K.E. 2013. “Mid-Pleistocene hominin occupation at Elandsfontein, Western Cape, South Africa.” Quaternary Science Reviews 82: 145–166.
  • Caley, T., Kim, J.H., Malaizé, B., Giraudeau, J., Laepple, T., Caillon, N., Charlier, J., Rebaubier, H., Rossignol, L., Castañeda, I.S., Schouten, S. and Damasté Sinninghe, J.S. 2011. “High-latitude obliquity as a dominant forcing in the Agulhas current system.” Climate of the Past 7: 1285–1296.
  • Chase, B.M. 2010. “South African palaeoenvironments during marine oxygen isotope stage 4: a context for the Howiesons Poort and Still Bay industries.” Journal of Archaeological Science 37: 1359–1366.
  • Chase, B.M. and Meadows, M.E. 2007. “Late Quaternary dynamics of southern Africa’s winter rainfall zone.” Earth-Science Reviews 84: 103–138.
  • Clark, J.D. 1988. “The Middle Stone Age of East Africa and the beginnings of regional identity.” Journal of World Prehistory 2: 235–305.
  • Clark, J.D. 1992. “African and Asian perspectives on the origins of modern humans.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 337: 201–215.
  • Clarkson, C. 2002. “An index of invasiveness for the measurement of unifacial and bifacial retouch: a theoretical, experimental and archaeological verification.” Journal of Archaeological Science 29: 65–75.
  • Clarkson, C. 2010. “Regional diversity within the core technology of the Howiesons Poort techno-complex.” In New Perspectives on Old Stones: Analytical Approaches to Paleolithic Technologies, edited by S.J. Lycett and P. Chauhan, 43–59. New York: Springer.
  • Cochrane, G.W.G. 2006. “An analysis of the lithic artifacts from the ∼60ka layers of Sibudu Cave.” Southern African Humanities 18(1): 69–88.
  • Cowling, R. M., Procheş, Ş. and Partridge, T.C. 2009. “Explaining the uniqueness of the Cape flora: incorporating geomorphic evolution as a factor for explaining its diversification.” Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 51: 64–74.
  • Crassard, R., and Hilbert, Y.H. 2013. “A Nubian Complex site from central Arabia: implications for Levallois taxonomy and human dispersals during the Upper Pleistocene.” PLoS ONE 8(7): e69221.
  • d’Errico, F., Banks, W.E., Warren, D.L., Sgubin, G., van Niekerk, K.L., Henshilwood, C.S., Daniau, A.L. Sánchez Goñi, M.F. 2017. “Identifying early modern human ecological niche expansions and associated cultural dynamics in the South African Middle Stone Age.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 114: 7869–7876.
  • d’Errico, F., Henshilwood, C.S., Vanhaeren, M. and van Niekerk, K.L. 2005. “Nassarius kraussianus shell beads from Blombos Cave: evidence for symbolic behaviour in the Middle Stone Age.” Journal of Human Evolution 48: 3–24.
  • Deacon, H.J. 1998. “Elandsfontein and Klasies River revisited.” In Stone Age Archaeology: Essays in Honour of John Wymer, edited by N. Ashton, F. Healy and P.B. Pettitt, 23–28. Oxford: Oxbow Monographs.
  • Deacon, J. and Wiltshire, N. 2015. “Report on a visit to the Tankwa Karoo National Park to assess the potential of the area for rock art and archaeological surveys and possible research.” Unpublished report.
  • Dewar, G.I. and Stewart, B.A. 2012. “Preliminary results of excavations at Spitzkloof Rockshelter, Richtersveld, South Africa.” Quaternary International 270: 30–39.
  • Dibble, H.L. 1987. “The interpretation of Middle Paleolithic scraper morphology.” American Antiquity 52: 109–117.
  • Dibble, H.L., Holdaway, S.J., Lin, S.C., Braun, D.R., Douglass, M.J., Iovitá, R., McPherron, S.P., Olszewski, D.I. and Sandgathe, D. 2017. “Major fallacies surrounding stone artifacts and assemblages.” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 24: 813–851.
  • Douze, K. and Delagnes, A. 2016. “The pattern of emergence of a Middle Stone Age tradition at Gademotta and Kulkuletti (Ethiopia) through convergent tool and point technologies.” Journal of Human Evolution 91: 93–121.
  • Fleisher, J. 2013. “Landscape archaeology.” In The Oxford Handbook of African Archaeology, edited by P.J. Mitchell and P.J. Lane, 189–200. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Foley, R.A. 1981. “Off-site archaeology: an alternative approach for the short-sited.” In Pattern of the Past: Studies in Honour of David Clarke, edited by I. Hodder, G.L. Isaac and N. Hammond, 157–183). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Foley, R.A. and Mirazón Lahr, M. 1997. “Mode 3 technologies and the evolution of modern humans.” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 7: 3–36.
  • Fuchs, M., Dietze, M., Al-Qudah, K. and Lomax, J. 2015. “Dating desert pavements — first results from a challenging environmental archive.” Quaternary Geochronology 30(Part B): 342–349.
  • Goder-Goldberger, M., Gubenko, N. and Hovers, E. 2016. “‘Diffusion with modifications’: Nubian assemblages in the central Negev highlands of Israel and their implications for Middle Paleolithic inter-regional interactions.” Quaternary International 408(B): 121-139.
  • Goudie, A.S. 2008. “The history and nature of wind erosion in deserts.” Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 36: 97-119.
  • Hallinan, E.S. 2013. “Stone Age landscape use in the Olifants River Valley, Western Cape.” MPhil diss., University of Cape Town.
  • Hallinan, E. and Parkington, J.E. 2017. “Stone Age landscape use in the Olifants River Valley, Clanwilliam, Western Cape, South Africa.” Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 52: 324–372.
  • Hallinan, E. and Shaw, M. 2015. “A new Middle Stone Age industry in the Tankwa Karoo, Northern Cape Province, South Africa.” Antiquity Project Gallery 89(344).
  • Hallinan, E. and Shaw, M. 2020. “Nubian Levallois reduction strategies in the Tankwa Karoo, South Africa.” PLoS ONE 15(10): e0241068.
  • Hardaker, T. 2011. New Approaches to the Study of Surface Palaeolithic Artefacts: A Pilot Project at Zebra River, Western Namibia. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
  • Henshilwood, C.S. 2012. “Late Pleistocene techno-traditions in southern Africa: a review of the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort, c. 75–59 ka.” Journal of World Prehistory 25: 205–237.
  • Henshilwood, C.S., d’Errico, F., Yates, R.J., Jacobs, Z., Tribolo, C., Duller, G.A.T., Mercier, N., Sealy, J.C., Valladas, H., Watts, I. and Wintle, A.G. 2002. “Emergence of modern human behavior: Middle Stone Age engravings from South Africa.” Science 295: 1278–1280.
  • Henshilwood, C.S., Sealy, J.C., Yates, R., Cruz-Uribe, K., Goldberg, P., Grine, F.E., Klein, R.G.,Poggenpoel, C., van Niekerk, K.L. and Watts, I. 2001. “Blombos Cave, Southern Cape, South Africa: preliminary report on the 1992–1999 excavations of the Middle Stone Age levels.” Journal of Archaeological Science 28: 421–448.
  • Henshilwood, C.S., van Niekerk, K.L., Wurz, S., Delagnes, A., Armitage, S.J., Rifkin, R.F., Douze, K., Keene, P., Haaland, M.M., Reynard, J., Discamps, E. and Mienies, S.S. 2014. “Klipdrift Shelter, Southern Cape, South Africa: preliminary report on the 1992–1999 excavations of the Middle Stone Age levels.” Journal of Archaeological Science 28: 421–448.
  • Högberg, A. 2016. “A lithic attribute analysis on blades from the Middle Stone Age site, Hollow Rock Shelter, Western Cape Province, South Africa.” Lithic Technology 41: 93–113.
  • Högberg, A. and Larsson, L. 2011. “Lithic technology and behavioural modernity: new results from the Still Bay site, Hollow Rock Shelter, Western Cape Province, South Africa.” Journal of Human Evolution 61: 133–155.
  • Högberg, A. and Lombard, M. 2016. “Still Bay point-production strategies at Hollow Rock Shelter and Umhlatuzana Rock Shelter and knowledge-transfer systems in southern Africa at about 80-70 thousand years ago.” PLoS ONE 11(12): e0168012-32.
  • Hublin, J.-J., Ben-Ncer, A., Bailey, S.E., Freidline, S.E., Neubauer, S., Skinner, M.M., Bergmann, I., Le Cabec, A., Benazzi, S., Harvati, K. and Gunz, P. 2017. “New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the pan-African origin of Homo sapiens.” Nature 546: 289–292.
  • Isaac, G.L. and Harris, J.W.K. 1980. “A method for determining the characteristics of artifacts between sites in the Upper Member of the Koobi Fora formation, East Lake Turkana.” In Proceedings of the 8th Pan-African Congress of Prehistory and Quaternary Studies, edited by R.E. Leakey and B.A. Ogot, 19–22. Nairobi: The International Louis Leakey Memorial Institute for African Prehistory.
  • Isaac, G.L., Harris, J.W.K. and Kroll, E.M. 1997. “The stone artefact assemblages: a comparative study.” In The Koobi Fora Research Project, Volume 5: Plio-Pleistocene Archaeology, edited by G.L. Isaac and B. Isaac, 262–306. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • Jacobs, Z., Roberts, R.G., Galbraith, R.F., Deacon, H.J., Grün, R., Mackay, A., Mitchell, P.J., Vogelsang, R. and Wadley, L. 2008. “Ages for the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa: implications for human behavior and dispersal.” Science 322: 733–735.
  • Johnson, M.R., Theron, J.N. and Loock, J.C. 2006. “Witteberg Group.” Catalogue of South African Lithostratigraphy 9: 47–49.
  • Johnson, M.R., Theron, J.N. and Rust, I.C. 1999. “Table Mountain Group.” Catalogue of South African Lithostratigraphy 6: 43–45.
  • Kandel, A.W., Bolus, M., Bretzke, K., Bruch, A.A., Haidle, M.N., Hertler, C. and Märker, M. 2016. “Increasing behavioral flexibility? An integrative macro-scale approach to understanding the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa.” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 23: 623–668.
  • Kandel, A.W. and Conard, N.J. 2012. “Settlement patterns during the Earlier and Middle Stone Age around Langebaan Lagoon, Western Cape (South Africa).” Quaternary International 270: 15–29.
  • Kelly, R.L. 1988. “The three sides of a biface.” American Antiquity 53: 717–734.
  • Kelly, R.L. 1995. The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
  • Kuhn, S.L. 1990. “A geometric index of reduction for unifacial stone tools.” Journal of Archaeological Science 17: 583–593.
  • Kuhn, S.L. 1995. Mousterian Lithic Technology: An Ecological Perspective. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  • Kuman, K. 1989. “Florisbad and ≠Gi: The contribution of open air sites to the study of the Middle Stone Age in southern Africa.” PhD diss., University of Michigan.
  • Kuman, K., Inbar, M. and Clarke, R.J. 1999. “Palaeoenvironments and cultural sequence of the Florisbad Middle Stone Age hominid site, South Africa.” Journal of Archaeological Science 26: 1409–1425.
  • Low, M., Mackay, A. and Phillips, N. 2017. “Understanding Early Later Stone Age technology at a landscape-scale: evidence from the open-air locality Uitspankraal 7 (UPK7) in the Western Cape, South Africa.” Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 52: 373–406.
  • Mackay, A. 2008. “On the production of blades and its relationship to backed artefacts in the Howiesons Poort at Diepkloof, South Africa.” Lithic Technology 33: 87–99.
  • Mackay, A. 2009. “History and selection in the late Pleistocene archaeology of the Western Cape, South Africa.” PhD diss., Australian National University.
  • Mackay, A. 2011. “Nature and significance of the Howiesons Poort to post-Howiesons Poort transition at Klein Kliphuis rockshelter, South Africa.” Journal of Archaeological Science 38: 1430–1440.
  • Mackay, A. 2016. “Three arcs: observations on the archaeology of the Elands Bay and northern Cederberg landscapes.” Southern African Humanities 29: 1–15.
  • Mackay, A., Hallinan, E.S. and Steele, T.E. 2018. “Provisioning responses to environmental change in South Africa’s Winter Rainfall Zone: MIS 5–2.” In Lithic Technological Organization and Paleoenvironmental Change: Global and Diachronic Perspectives, edited by E. Robinson and F. Sellet, 13–36. Cham: Springer.
  • Mackay, A., Stewart, B.A. and Chase, B.M. 2014b. “Coalescence and fragmentation in the late Pleistocene archaeology of southernmost Africa.” Journal of Human Evolution 72: 26–51.
  • Mackay, A., Sumner, T.A., Jacobs, Z., Marwick, B., Bluff, K. and Shaw, M. 2014a. “Putslaagte 1 (PL1), the Doring River, and the later Middle Stone Age in southern Africa’s Winter Rainfall Zone.” Quaternary International 350: 43–58.
  • Marean, C.W. 2010. “Pinnacle Point Cave 13B (Western Cape Province, South Africa) in context: the Cape Floral kingdom, shellfish, and modern human origins.” Journal of Human Evolution 59: 425–443.
  • Matmon, A., Simhai, O., Amit, R., Haviv, I., Porat, N., McDonald, E., Benedetti, L. and Finkel, R. 2009. “Desert pavement-coated surfaces in extreme deserts present the longest-lived landforms on Earth.” Geological Society of America Bulletin 121: 688–697.
  • McAuliffe, J., McFadden, L.D. and Hoffman, M. 2018. “Role of aeolian dust in shaping landscapes and soils of arid and semi-arid South Africa.” Geosciences 8: 1–34.
  • McBrearty, S. and Brooks, A.S. 2000. “The revolution that wasn’t: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior.” Journal of Human Evolution 39: 453–563.
  • McCall, G.S. 2007. “Behavioral ecological models of lithic technological change during the later Middle Stone Age of South Africa.” Journal of Archaeological Science 34: 1738–1751.
  • McDougall, I., Brown, F.H. and Fleagle, J.G. 2005. “Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia.” Nature 433: 733–736.
  • McFadden, L.D., Wells, S.G. and Jercinovich, M.J. 1987. “Influences of eolian and pedogenic processes on the origin and evolution of desert pavements.” Geology 15: 504–507.
  • Meadows, M.E. and Quick, L.J. 2016. “Terrestrial ecosystem changes in the late Quaternary.” In Quaternary Environmental Change in Southern Africa: Physical and Human Dimensions, edited by J. Knight and S.W. Grab, 269–283. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Mellars, P.A. 2007. “Rethinking the human revolution: Eurasian and African perspectives.” In Rethinking the Human Revolution: New Behavioural and Biological Perspectives on the Origin and Dispersal of Modern Humans, edited by P.A. Mellars, K. Boyle, O. Bar-Yosef and C. Stringer, 1–11. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.
  • Mellars, P.A. and Stringer, C. (eds). 1989. The Human Revolution: Behavioural and Biological Perspectives on the Origins of Modern Humans. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
  • Mitchell, P.J. 2008. “Developing the archaeology of Marine Isotope Stage 3.” South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series 10: 52–65.
  • Mitchell, P.J. 2016. “Africa from MIS 6-2: where do we go from here?” In Africa from MIS 62: Population Dynamics and Paleoenvironments, edited by S.C. Jones and B.A. Stewart, 407–416. Dordrecht: Springer.
  • Mohapi, M. 2012. “Point morphology and the Middle Stone Age cultural sequence of Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.” South African Archaeological Bulletin 67: 5–15.
  • Mohapi, M. 2013. “The Middle Stone Age point assemblage from Umhlatuzana: morphometric study.” Southern African Humanities 25: 25–31.
  • Mucina, L., Jürgens, N., le Roux, A., Rutherford, M.C., Schmiedel, U., Esler, K.J., Powrie, L.W., Desmet, P.G. and Milton, S.J. 2006. “Succulent Karoo Biome.” In The Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, edited by L. Mucina and M.C. Rutherford, 221–299. Pretoria: South African National Biodiversity Institute.
  • Mucina, L. and Rutherford, M.C. (eds). 2006. The Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Pretoria: South African National Biodiversity Institute.
  • Oestmo, S., Schoville, B.J., Wilkins, J. and Marean, C.W. 2014. “A Middle Stone Age paleoscape near the Pinnacle Point caves, Vleesbaai, South Africa.” Quaternary International 350: 147–168.
  • Parkington, J.E. 1980. “Time and place: some observations on spatial and temporal patterning in the Later Stone Age sequence in southern Africa.” South African Archaeological Bulletin 35: 73–112.
  • Porat, N., Chazan, M., Grün, R., Aubert, M., Eisenmann, V. and Horwitz, L.K. 2010. “New radiometric ages for the Fauresmith industry from Kathu Pan, southern Africa: implications for the Earlier to Middle Stone Age transition.” Journal of Archaeological Science 37: 269–283.
  • Porraz, G., Parkington, J.E., Rigaud, J.-P., Miller, C.E., Poggenpoel, C., Tribolo, C., Archer, W., Cartwright, C.R., Charrié-Duhaut, A., Dayet, L., Igreja, M., Mercier, N., Schmidt, P., Verna, C. and Texier, P.-J. 2013a. “The MSA sequence of Diepkloof and the history of southern African Late Pleistocene populations.” Journal of Archaeological Science 40: 3542–3552.
  • Porraz, G., Texier, P.-J., Archer, W., Piboule, M., Rigaud, J.-P. and Tribolo, C. 2013b. “Technological successions in the Middle Stone Age sequence of Diepkloof Rock Shelter, Western Cape, South Africa.” Journal of Archaeological Science 40: 3376–3400.
  • Porraz, G., Val, A., Dayet, L., de la Peña, P., Douze, K., Miller, C., Murungi, M.L., Tribolo, C., Schmid, V.C. and Sievers, C. 2015. “Bushman Rock Shelter (Limpopo, South Africa): a perspective from the edge of the Highveld.” South African Archaeological Bulletin 70: 166–179.
  • Procheş, Ş., Cowling, R.M., Goldblatt, P., Manning, J.C. and Snijman, D.A. 2006. “An overview of the Cape geophytes.” Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 87: 27–43.
  • Quick, L.J. and Eckardt, F.D. 2015. “The Cederberg: a rugged sandstone topography.” In Landscapes and Landforms of South Africa, edited by S.W. Grab and J. Knight, 85–93. Cham: Springer.
  • Rebelo, A.G., Boucher, C., Helme, N., Mucina, L. and Rutherford, M.C. 2006. “Fynbos Biome.” In The Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, edited by L. Mucina and M.C. Rutherford, 53–219. Pretoria: South African National Biodiversity Institute.
  • Rogers, J., Smith, G. and Engelbrecht, W. 2014. Around the Tankwa Karoo National Park: A Field Guide to the Geology and Landscape. Cape Town: Bright Brown.
  • Sampson, C.G. 1968. The Middle Stone Age Industries of the Orange River Scheme Area. Bloemfontein: National Museum Bloemfontein.
  • Sampson, C.G. 1985. Atlas of Stone Age Settlement in the Central and Upper Seacow Valley. Bloemfontein: National Museum Bloemfontein.
  • Sampson, C.G. 2001. “An Acheulian settlement pattern in the Upper Karoo region of South Africa.” In A Very Remote Period Indeed: Papers on the Palaeolithic Presented to Derek Roe, edited by S. Milliken and J. Cook, 28–36. Oxford: Oxbow.
  • Sampson, C.G., Moore, V., Bousman, C.B., Stafford, B., Giordano, A. and Willis, M. 2015. “A GIS analysis of the Zeekoe Valley Stone Age archaeological record in South Africa.” Journal of African Archaeology 13: 167–185.
  • Schick, K.D. and Toth, N.P. 1993. Making Silent Stones Speak: Human Evolution and the Dawn of Technology. New York: Simon and Schuster.
  • Seong, Y.B., Dorn, R.I. and Yu, B.Y. 2016. “Evaluating the life expectancy of a desert pavement.” Earth-Science Reviews 162: 129–154.
  • Shaw, M. 2017. “A landscape approach to the surface archaeology of the Bos River, Tankwa Karoo, Northern Cape.” MPhil diss., University of Cape Town.
  • Shaw, M., Ames, C.J.H., Phillips, N., Chambers, S., Dosseto, A., Douglas, M., Goble, R., Jacobs, Z., Jones, B., Lin, S.C.-H., Low, M.A., McNeil, J.-L., Nasoordeen, S. and O’Driscoll, C.A. 2019. “The Doring River Archaeology Project: approaching the evolution of human land use patterns in the Western Cape, South Africa.” PaleoAnthropology 2019: 400–422.
  • Shea, J.J. 2010. “Stone Age visiting cards revisited: a strategic perspective on the lithic technology of early hominin dispersal.” In Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia, edited by J.G. Fleagle, J.J. Shea, F.E. Grine, A.L. Baden and R.E. Leakey, 47–64. Dordrecht: Springer.
  • Shea, J.J. 2011. “Homo sapiens is as Homo sapiens was: behavioral variability versus ‘behavioral modernity’; in Paleolithic archaeology.” Current Anthropology 52: 1–35.
  • Smith, A.B. 1993. “MSA of the Cape high country.” The Digging Stick 10(1): 12.
  • Smith, A.B. and Ripp, M.R. 1978. “An archaeological reconnaissance of the Doorn/Tanqua Karoo.” South African Archaeological Bulletin 33: 118–133.
  • Steele, T.E., Mackay, A., Fitzsimmons, K.E., Igreja, M., Marwick, B., Orton, J., Schwortz, S. and Stahlschmidt, M.C. 2016. “Varsche Rivier 003: a Middle and Later Stone Age Site with Still Bay and Howiesons Poort assemblages in southern Namaqualand, South Africa.” PaleoAnthropology 2016: 100163.
  • Stewart, B.A., Dewar, G.I., Morley, M.W., Inglis, R.H., Wheeler, M., Jacobs, Z. and Roberts, R.G. 2012. “Afromontane foragers of the Late Pleistocene: site formation, chronology and occupational pulsing at Melikane Rockshelter, Lesotho.” Quaternary International 270: 40–60.
  • Texier, P.-J., Porraz, G., Parkington, J.E., Rigaud, J.-P., Poggenpoel, C., Miller, C.E., Tribolo, C., Cartwright, C., Coudenneau, A., Klein, R., Steele, T. and Verna, C. 2010. “A Howiesons Poort tradition of engraving ostrich eggshell containers dated to 60,000 years ago at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107: 6180–6185.
  • Theron, J.N. and Johnson, M.R. 1991. “Bokkeveld Group (including the Ceres, Bidouw and Traka Subgroups).” Catalogue of South African Lithostratigraphy 3: 3–5.
  • Thomas, D.H. 1975. “Nonsite sampling in archaeology: up the creek without a site?” In Sampling in Archaeology, edited by W.J. Mueller, 61–81. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
  • Thompson, E., Williams, H.M. and Minichillo, T. 2010. “Middle and late Pleistocene Middle Stone Age lithic technology from Pinnacle Point 13B (Mossel Bay, Western Cape Province, South Africa).” Journal of Human Evolution 59: 358–377.
  • Torrence, R. 1989. “Retooling: towards a behavioural theory of stone tools.” In Time, Energy and Stone Tools, edited by R. Torrence, 5766. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Tryon, C.A., Peppe, D.J., Tyler Faith, J., Van Plantinga, A., Nightingale, S., Ogondo, J. and Fox, D.L. 2012. “Late Pleistocene artefacts and fauna from Rusinga and Mfangano islands, Lake Victoria, Kenya.” Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 47: 14–38.
  • Tusenius, M. 2014. “Phase 1 Archaeological Impact Assessment of the proposed construction of tourism units at Elandsberg Rest Camp and Staff Village near the Roodewerf Park Office, Tankwa Karoo National Park, Hantam local municipality, Northern Cape.” Unpublished report prepared for Enviroworks Western Cape.
  • Usik, V.I., Rose, J.I., Hilbert, Y.H., Van Peer, P. and Marks, A.E. 2013. “Nubian Complex reduction strategies in Dhofar, southern Oman.” Quaternary International 300: 244–266.
  • Van Peer, P. 1992. The Levallois Reduction Strategy. Madison: Prehistory Press.
  • Van Peer, P. and Vermeersch, P.M. 2000. “The Nubian complex and dispersal of modern humans in North Africa.” In Recent Research into the Stone Age of Northeastern Africa, edited by L. Krzyzaniak, K. Kroeper and M. Kobusiewicz, 47–60. Poznań: Poznań Archaeological Museum.
  • Villa, P., Delagnes, A. and Wadley, L. 2005. “A late Middle Stone Age artifact assemblage from Sibudu (KwaZulu-Natal): comparisons with the European Middle Paleolithic.” Journal of Archaeological Science 32: 399–422.
  • Villa, P. and Lenoir, M. 2006. “Hunting weapons of the Middle Stone Age and the Middle Palaeolithic: spear points from Sibudu, Rose Cottage and Bouheben.” Southern African Humanities 18(1): 89–122.
  • Wadley, L. 2010. “Cemented ash as a receptacle or work surface for ochre powder production at Sibudu, South Africa, 58,000 years ago.” Journal of Archaeological Science 37: 2397–2406.
  • Wadley, L., Murungi, M.L., Witelson, D., Bolhar, R., Bamford, M.K., Sievers, C., Val, A. and de la Peña, P. 2016. “Steenbokfontein 9KR: a Middle Stone Age spring site in Limpopo, South Africa.” South African Archaeological Bulletin 71: 130–145.
  • Wallsmith, D.L. 1994. “Lithic management strategies of Late Middle Stone Age hunter-gatherers in the upper Karoo region of South Africa.” PhD diss., Southern Methodist University.
  • White, T.D., Asfaw, B., DeGusta, D., Gilbert, H., Richards, G.D., Suwa, G., Howell, F.C. 2003. “Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia.” Nature 423: 742–747.
  • Wilkins, J., Schoville, B.J., Brown, K. S. and Chazan, M.C. 2012. “Evidence for early hafted hunting technology.” Science 338: 942–946.
  • Will, M., Mackay, A. and Phillips, N. 2015. “Implications of Nubian-Like core reduction systems in southern Africa for the identification of early modern human dispersals.” PLoS ONE 10(6): e0131824.
  • Wurz, S. 2000. “The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River, South Africa.” DPhil diss., University of Stellenbosch.
  • Wurz, S., Bentsen, S.E., Reynard, J., Van Pletzen-Vos, L., Brenner, M., Mentzer, S., Pickering, R. and Green, H. 2018. “Connections, culture and environments around 100 000 years ago at Klasies River main site. Quaternary International 495: 102–115

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.