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Nationalities Papers
The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity
Volume 28, 2000 - Issue 4
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Original Articles

New states, old identities? The Czech Republic, Slovakia, and historical understandings of statehood

Pages 619-650 | Published online: 19 Aug 2010

References

  • "Czech pages at SunSITE Czech Republic," http://sunsite.mff.cuni.cz/czechrep/Index.html (http://sunsite.mff.cuni.cz/czechrep/Index.html)
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  • ?iktanc , Karel and Hucková , Barbara , eds. 1993 . Ceské komnovacní klenoty [The Bohemian Coronation Regalia] , Prague : Kancelár Prezidenta Ceské republiky .
  • Gellner , Ernest . 1983 . Nations and Nationalism , 1 Ithaca , NY : Cornell University Press .
  • Breuilly , John . 1994 . Nationalism and the State, , 2nd edn , 56 – 62 . Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
  • Kohn , Hans . 1944 . The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background , New York : Macmillan .
  • 1965 . Nationalism: Its Meaning and History , Princeton : Van Nestrand . and a briefer treatment
  • 1992 . Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity , Cambridge : MA: Harvard University Press . Liah Greenfeld develops a more complex treatment of these issues that shows similarities to Kohn in
  • Walicki , Andrzej . 1989 . The Enlightenment and the Birth of Modern Nationhood: Polish Political Thought from Noble Republicanism to Tadeusz Kosciuszko , West Bend , IN : University of Notre Dame Press . criticizes the simplistic application of Kohn's distinction to Eastern Europe. See especially pp. 1-7
  • Leff , Carol Skalnik . 1988 . National Conflict in Czechoslovakia, the Making and Remaking of a State, 1918-1987 , 11 – 41 . Princeton : Princeton University Press . A good summary of significant historical differences is in
  • Hroch , Miroslav . 1995 . "National Self-Determination from a Historical Perspective" ” . In Notions of Nationalism , Edited by: Periwal , Sukumar . 65 – 82 . Budapest : Central European University Press . discusses the impact of these differences on the nineteenth-century national struggle
  • Rychlík , Jan . 1995 . "National Consciousness and the Common State (A Historical-Ethnological Analysis)" ” . In The End of Czechoslovakia , Edited by: Musil , Jirí . 97 – 100 . Budapest : Central European University Press .
  • Mlynánk , Ján . 1993 . "História cesko-slovenských vzt'ahov" [History of Czech-Slovak Relations] ” . In Rozloucenís Ceskoslovenskem: Príciny a dusledky cesko-slovenského rozchodu [Farewell to Czechoslovakia: Causes and Consequences of the Czech-Slovak Separation] , Edited by: Kipke , Rüdiger and Vodicka , Karel . 17 – 21 . Prague : Ceský spisovatel .
  • Jungmann , Josef . 1806 . "O jazyku ceském, rozmlouvání druhém" [A Second Conversation about the Czech Language] . Hlasatel Ceský [Czech Herald] , 1 : 326
  • Koralka , Jirí . 1988 . "K pojetí národa v ceské spolecnosti 19. století' [The Concept of Nation in Czech Society in the Nineteenth Century] ” . In Pavdomi tradice v novodobé ceské kulture (doba Bedricha Smetany) [The Consciousness of Tradition in Modern Czech Culture in the Age of Bedrich Smetana] , 34 – 35 . Prague : Národní galerie .
  • Agnew , Hugh LeCaine . 1992 . "Noble Natio and Modern Nation: The Czech Case," Austrian History Yearbook . Vol. 23 , : 58 – 65 .
  • Agnew , Hugh LeCaine . 2000 . "Ambiguities of Ritual: Dynastic Loyalty, Territorial Patriotism and Nationalism in the Last Three Royal Coronations in Bohemia, 1791-1836" ” . In Bohemia: Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Kultur der böhmischen Länder forthcoming
  • Palacky , Franz [Franti?ek] . 1874 . "Eine Stimme über Österreichs Anschluss an Deutschland" ” . In Gedenkblätter: Auswahl von Denkschriften, Aufsätzen und Briefen aus den letzten fünfzig Jahren , 150 Prague : Tempsky . Jirí Koralka has identified this German text as Palacký's original, and the contemporary Czech version as printed in
  • 1848 . Národní noviny [National News] , April as someone else's translation. See his
  • 1983-1984 . "Palacký a Frankfurt 1840-1860: husitské bádání a politické praxe" [Palacký and Frankfurt, 1840-1860: Hussite Research and Political Practice] . Husitský Tábor [Hussite Tábor] , 6-7 : 310n
  • Palactý . "Eine Stimme" ” . 152
  • Springer , Anton , ed. 1885 . Protokolle des Verfassungs-Ausschusses im Österreichischen Reichstage 1848-1849 , 26 Leipzig : S. Hirzel . With his next breath, though, Palacký referred to the practical difficulties of dividing Bohemia without destroying it
  • Gottsmann , Andreas . 1994 . Der Reichstag von Kremsier und die Regierung Schwarzenberg: die Verfassungsdiskussion des Jahres 1848 im Spannungfeld zwischen Reaktion und nationaler Frage , Vienna and Munich : R. Oldenbourg . For a study of the work of the Kromr?/Kremsier parliament and its end, see
  • Bernatzik , Edmund , ed. 1911 . Die Österreichischen Verfassungsgesetze mit Erläuterungen, , 2nd edn , 1087 – 1091 . Vienna : Manz .
  • Agnew . "Noble Natio and Modern Nation" ” . 65 – 66 .
  • Garver , Bruce . 1978 . The Young Czech Party, 1874-1901, and the Emergence of a Multi-Party System , New Haven : Yale University Press .
  • Jenks , William A. 1965 . Austria under the Iron Ring, 1879-1893 , Charlottesville : University of Virginia Press .
  • Urban , Otto . 1982 . Ceská spolecnost, 1848-1918 [Czech Society, 1848-1918] , Prague : Svoboda . A recent Czech account is
  • Koralka , Jirí . 1991 . Tschechen im Habsburggerreich und in Europa, 1815-1914 , 59 – 60 . Vienna and Munich : Verlag für Geschichte und Politik and R. Oldenbourg .
  • Koralka . Tschechen im Habsburgerreich 60 – 63 .
  • Garver . Young Czech Party 241
  • Masaryk , Thomas (Tomá?) Garrigue . 1969 . The Making of a State: Memories and Observations, 1914-1918 , 41 London : George Allen & Unwin . reprint New York: Howard Fertig
  • Laun , Rudolf . 1919 . Les pretensions Tchécoslovaques à des territoires allemands , The Hague : Martin Nijhoff . A good example of such arguments, produced specifically for the Peace Conference delegations, is
  • 1928 . "Deklarácia slovenského národa v Turc. Sv. Martine 30 októbra 1918" [Declaration of the Slovak Nation in Turcianstý Svätý Martin on 30 October 1918] ” . In Za právo a stát: Sborník dokladu o ceskoslovenské spolecné vuli k svobod [For Right and the State: A Collection of Documents on the Czechoslovak Common Will to Freedom] , 337 Prague : Státní nakladatelství .
  • Brock , Peter . 1976 . The Slovak National Awakening: An Essay in the Intellectual History of East Central Europe , 6 – 7 . Toronto and Buffalo : University of Toronto Press .
  • Locher , Theodor J. G. 1931 . Die nationale Differenzierung und Integrierung der Slovaken und Tschechen in ihrem geschichtlichen Verlauf bis 1848 , 160 – 161 . Haarlem : H. D. Tjeenk Willink .
  • Spiesz , Anton . 1992 . Dejiny slovenska na ceste k sebauvedomeniu [History of Slovakia on Its Journey to Self-Consciousness] , 63 – 136 . Bratislava : Vydavatel'stvo Perfekt . A recent (postcommunist) summary in ?lovak is
  • ?túr , L'udovft . 1957 . Nárecie slovenské, alebo potreba písania v tomto nárecí [The Slovak Dialect, or the Necessity of Writing in that Dialect] , 110 Bratislava : Slovenské vydavatel'stvo krásnej literatúry . L'udovft ?túr did have some hopes during the 1840s of winning the Slovak gentry to his national program, but his success was meager
  • ?túr , L'udovft . 1959 . Cestou ?ivota trnistou, Dielo v piatich zväzkoch: Doplnkový zväzok [Life's Thorny Path, Works in Five Volumes, Supplementary Volume] , 223 Bratislava : Slovenské vydavatel'stvo krásnej literatúry . and his retrospective letter to the Russian Slavist Izmail Ivanovich Sreznevskii, 15 December 1850
  • Kirschbaum , Stanislav J. 1995 . A History of Slovakia: The Struggle for Survival , 113 – 114 . New York : St Martin's .
  • Brock . Slovak National Awakening 8 For a contemporary statement of some of these traditions
  • Vraga? , ?tefan . 1991 . Cyrilometodské dedicstvo v nábo?enskom národnom a kultúrnom ?ivote slovákov [The Cyrilo-Methodian Inheritance in the Religious, National and Cultural Life of the Slovaks] , Zurich, Toronto, and Bratislava : Lúc; Nákladom zahranicnej Matice slovenskej-európskej odbocky .
  • Brock . Slovak National Awakening 22
  • Agnew , Hugh LeCaine . 1992 . "Czechs, Slovaks and the Slovak Linguistic Separatism of the Mid-Nineteenth Century" ” . In The Czech and Slovak Experience , Edited by: Morison , John . 21 – 37 . London : St Martin's .
  • Hurban , Jozef Miloslav . "Bratia Slováci !" [Slovak Brothers] ” . In Slovenské povstanie Edited by: Rapant . 74
  • "?iadosti slovenskieho národa," pp. 202-203.
  • "?iadosti slovenskieho národa," pp. 204-205.
  • Deak , Istvan . 1979 . The Lawful Revolution: Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians, 1848-1849 , New York : Columbia University Press . The best treatment in English of the Hungarian 1848 is; he discusses the revolution and the nationalities in particular on pp. 119-129.
  • Boke? , Franti?ek , ed. 1962 . "Memorandum národa slovenského k Vysokému snemu krajiny uhorskej, obsahujúce ?iadost národa slovenského ciel'om spravodlivého prevedenia a zákonom krajinským zabezpecenia rovnoprávnosti národnej v Uhrách" [Memorandum of the Slovak Nation to the Illustrious Diet of the Hungarian Kingdom, Containing the Demand of the Slovak Nation with the Aim of the Legal Introduction and Constitutional Guarantee of National Equality in Hungary] ” . In Dokumenty k slavenskému národnému hnutiu v rokoch 1848-1914 [Documents on the Slovak National Movement, 1848-1914], Vol. 1, 1848-1867 , Vol. 1 , 315 Bratislava : Vydavatel'stvo Slovenskej akadémie vied .
  • Ibid., p. 314.
  • Ibid., p. 317. The reference of course is to Austria's defeat by Piedmont and France in 1859 and the subsequent moves towards Italian unification.
  • Boke? , ed. Dokumenty Vol. 3 , 271 – 281 . See the documents, all from Národnie noviny, including coverage of the meetings and the text of the declaration adopted at the congress
  • Hurban-Vajanský , Svetozár . 1897 . "Náhl'ady a výhl'ady" [Introspections and Prospects] . Národnie noviny , 25-27 and 29-30 November
  • Boke? , ed. Dokumenty 372 – 73 .
  • "Deklarácia slovenského národa," p. 337.
  • Bene? , Václav L. 1973 . "Czechoslovak Democracy and Its Problems, 1918-1920" ” . In A History of the Czechoslovak Republic, 1918-1948 , Edited by: Mamatey , Victor S. and Lu?a , Radomir . 39 – 98 . Princeton : Princeton University Press .
  • Mamatey , Victor S. "The Development of Czechoslovak Democracy, 1920-1938" ” . In Czechoslovak Republic Edited by: Mamatey and LuDa . 99 – 166 . This perspective was shared by Czech historians reflecting on the question during 1992; for example, see
  • Urban , Otto . 1992 . "Na dobré cestê: Historické souvislostí cesko-slovenské otázky" [Well Under Way: The Historical Context of the Czech-Slovak Question] . Literární noviny [Literary News] , 2-8 July : 1 3
  • Johnson , Owen V. Slovakia, 1918-1938: Education and the Making of a Nation , Boulder : East European Monographs . 1985
  • Rychlfk , Jan . 1997 . Ce?i a Slováci ve 20. stoleti: Cesko-slovenské vztahy 1914-1945 [Czechs and Slovaks in the Twentieth Century: Czech-Slovak Relations, 1914-1945] , Bratislava and Prague : Academic Electronic Press and Ústav T. G. Masaryka . Rychlik's arguments are summarized on pp. 257-260.
  • Rychllk . Ce?i a Slovací ve 20. století 60 – 61 .
  • Felak , James . "Slovak Considerations of the Slovak Question: The L'udak, Agrarian, Socialist and Communist Views in Interwar Czechoslovakia" ” . In Czech and Slovak Experience Edited by: Morison . 136 – 162 .
  • Bene? . "Czechoslovak Democracy" ” . 84 – 86 . One example of this characteristic trait is the affair of the Slovak memorandum for the Peace Conference in Paris in 1919, which resulted in Hlinka's arrest (he was later shamefacedly released without trial)
  • Mikus , Joseph A. 1963 . Slovakia: A Political History, 1918-1950 , 331 – 340 . Milwaukee : Marquette University Press . The memorandum, which asserted that "we are neither Czechs nor Czechoslovaks, we are just simply Slovaks," is printed in
  • Felak , James Ramon . 1994 . "At the Price of the Republic": Hlinka's Slovak People's Party, 1929-1938 , Pittsburgh : University of Pittsburgh Press . provides the best survey in English of the party's activities during the 1930s
  • Kamenec , Ivan . 1992 . Slovenský stát [The Slovak State] , 117 – 138 . Prague : Anomal .
  • Hoensch , Jörg K. "The Slovak Republic, 1939-1945" ” . In Czechoslovak Republic Edited by: Mamatey and Lu?a . 271 – 295 .
  • Jelinek , Yeshayahu . 1976 . The Parish Republic: Hlinka's Slovak People's Party, 1939-1945 , Boulder : East European Quarterly .
  • 1945 . Program ceskoslovenské vlády Národní fronty Cechu a Slováku prijatý na prvé schuzi vlády dne 5. dubna 1945 v Ko?icich [Program of the Czechoslovak Government of the National Front of Czechs and Slovaks Adopted at Its First Meeting on April 5 1945 in Ko?ice] , 15 – 17 . Prague : Ministervstvo informací .
  • Rychlfk . Ce?i a Slováci 227 – 256 .
  • Josko , Anna . "The Slovak Resistance Movement" ” . In Czechoslovak Republic Edited by: Mamatey and Lu?a . 362 – 386 .
  • Leff . National Conflict in Czechoslovakia 243 – 252 .
  • Vodicka , Karel . "Koalicnf jednáni: Rozdlíme stát! Volby '92 a jejich dusledky pro ceskoslovenskou státnost" [Coalition Negotiations: We Will Divide the State! The Elections of '92 and Their Consquences for Czechoslovak Statehood] ” . In Rozlouceni s Ceskoslovenskem Edited by: Kipke and Vodicka . 83 – 116 .
  • Wolchik , Sharon L. "The Politics of Transition and the Break-up of Czechoslovakia," and Václav ?ák, "The Velvet Divorce-Institutional Foundations" ” . In The End of Czechoslovakia Edited by: Musil . 225 – 244 . 245 – 270 .
  • ?ák . "The Velvet Divorce-Institutional Foundations" ” . 250 – 251 . Carnogurský's interview with Smena [Changes], 11 October 1990, in Federal Broadcast Information Service (hereafter FBIS), Daily Reports, Eastern Europe, EEU-90-200, 16 October 1990, p. 34
  • 1992 . "Vyhlásenie Valného zhroma?denia Matice slovenskej" [Proclamation of the General Assembly of Matice Slovenská] . Slovenský národ [Slovak Nation] , 18 August The text of the constitution may be found at the Slovak Constitutional Court's homepage, http://www.concouit.sk/S/Ustava/ustava_a.htm#address. See also FBIS-EEU-92-171, 2 September 1992, p. 4, "National Council Approves Slovak Constitution," Prague, CSTK, in English, 17:58 GMT, 1 September 1992. The change in the designation of the Slovak language echoed a demand voiced by Matica Slovenská at its general meeting of 7-8 August 1992, which adopted a resolution stating, "in this historic moment Matica slovenská, true to its traditions and its National program, must insist that the Slovak language be unambiguously established as the state language in the Constitution of the Slovak republic."
  • 1992 . "Pred pamatnym doom SR" [Before a Day of Remembrance for the SR] . Národná obroda [National Renewal] , 19 September At the conclusion of the festivities, the participants planted a commemorative linden tree in the museum grounds
  • Ibid.
  • Bútorová , Zora and Rosová , Tatiana . 1991 . "Independent and Democratic?" . Bratislava, Kultumý ?ivot [Cultural Life] , 10 December JPRS-EER-92-010, 24 January 1992, p. 10
  • 1992 . "Hádání o federální vlajku" [Arguments over the Federal Flag] . Mlada fronta Ones [Young Front Today] , 20 November "Duvodova" zpráva" [Supporting Report], attached to draft law on state symbols and flag, 4 December, 1992, http://www.psp.cz/eknih/1992cnr/tisky/t0189_00.htm. See also
  • 1992 . "Jaka bude vlajka?" [What Will the Flag be Like?] . Ceský deník [Czech Daily] , 19 November
  • Macura , Vladimir . 1993 . Masarykovy boty a jiná semi(o)fejetony [Masaryk's Shoes and Other Semi(o)feuilletons] , 32 – 33 . Prague : Pra?ská imaginace .
  • Macura , Vladimir . Masarykovy boty 40 – 41 . Macura points out the interesting fact that the three "substitute" Czech figures chosen to replace the Slovaks were all women, suggesting this reflects semiotically a certain set of Czech attitudes to Slovaks and Slovakia-as does the rhetoric about the Czech-Slovak relationship as a marriage, and the dissolution of the CSFR as a divorce. Images of the whole series of current banknotes may be found at the Czech National Bank website, http://www.cnb.cz/by clicking on the link "Bankovky a mince."
  • Rychlik , Jan . 1992 . "Nad novým státem: Jak budé vypadat nová Ceská republika" [On the New State: What the New Czech Republic Will Look Like] . Lidové noviny , 19 October
  • Hanzal , Jozef . 1992 . "Ceská státnost: Peripetie ceského státu mezi samostatností a podrízeností [Czech Statehood: Peregrinations of the Czech State between Independence and Subjection] . Lidové noviny , 27 October
  • 1992 . "Tradice humanity a democracie: Slavnost k obnové ceského státu" [Traditions of Humanity and Democracy: Celebration on the Renewal of the Czech State] . Ceský deník , 26 October
  • 1992 . "'Budujeme stát pro sebe': Václav Klaus na Vy?ehrad 24, 10. 1992" ["We Are Building a State for Ourselves": Václav Klaus on Vy?ehrad, 24 October 1992] . Ceský deník , 27 October
  • 1993 . "Havel Delivers Inaugural Speech" . 3 February : 10 FBIS-EEU-93-021; Among the good traditions he included "truth as a moral quality, a desire for understanding, decency and tolerance, respect for people as unique beings, humility before the noble order of creation, a sense of coresponsibility for the general affairs of the human community, connected with a critical overview of them, and, of course, unshakeable determination for peace and, if possible, a peaceful solution to all disputes." Among the bad traditions Havel listed "spineless adaptability, provincial little faith, unrestrained greediness, and cynicism masquerading as realism."
  • Prhoda , Petr . "Sociáln-psychologické aspekty soutí Cechu a Slováku" [Social-Psychological Aspects of Czech and Slovak Coexistence] ” . In Rozloucení s Ceskoslovenskem 37
  • Litecký-?veda , Ján . 1992 . "Preco?" [Why?] . Kondor [Corridor] , 20 August
  • 1992 . "Czech-Slovak Reciprocity in Historical Perspective" (Du?an Kovac, "Slovaks and Czechs: Looking Back") . Bratislava, Kulturný ?ivot, in Slovak , 30 January : 1 6 JPRS-EER-92-041, 3 April 1992, p. 22
  • Spanar , Stanislav . 1992 . "Shades of the Past" . Literání noviny , 22 March : 1 3 JPRS-EER-92-048, 20 April 1992, pp. 12-14
  • Butorová , Zora and Rosová , Tatiana . 1991 . "Independent and Democratic?" . Bratislava, Kulturný ?ivot , 10 December : 6 – 7 . JPRS-EER-92-010, 24 January 1992, p. 10
  • Cibula , Igor . 1990 . "Who Has Divided the Nation?" . commentary in Narodná obroda , 27 October : 3 For example, see FBIS-EEU-90-211, 31 October 1990
  • 1990 . "Monolingual or Bilingual" . Lidové noviny , 12 October According to research in 1990 by the Institute for Public Opinion Research at the Slovak Statistical Office in Bratislava, in the ethnically mixed regions of southern Slovakia, 37 of Slovaks spoke only Slovak, while only 3 of the Hungarians spoke only Magyar. 38 of Slovaks and 79 of Hungarians were nearly effortlessly bilingual, while an additional 25 of Slovaks and 18 of Hungarian spoke both languages, but with difficulties. See FBIS-EEU-90-200, 16 October 1990, p. 36
  • Cibula , Igor . 1990 . "It Is Impossible to Fight on All Fronts" . commentary in Narodná obroda , 11 October FBIS-EEU-90-200, 16 October 1990, p. 36
  • 1990 . "Text of Slovak Language Law Passed October 25" . Bratislava, Narodná obroda , 27 October : 2 FBIS-EEU-90-210, 13 November 1990, p. 14
  • Ibid., p. 15.
  • 1990 . "Civic Forum Apropos the Slovak Language Statute" . Rudé Právo [Red Right] , 4 October : 5 FBIS-EEU-90-196, 10 October 1990, p. 24
  • Jiránek , Vladimir . 1992 . V?ichni jsme demokrati [We're All Democrats] , Prague : Ceskoslovenský spisovatel . Image copyright © 1992 by Vladimir Jiránek. Used by permission
  • Stevík , Alexander . "Let Us Restrain Ourselves and Unite" . Navý Slovák [New Slovak] , JPRS-EER-92-011, 28 January 1992, p. 10
  • Litecký-?veda , Ján . 1992 . "Preco?" . Koridor , 20 August
  • 1992 . Ceský deník , 27 October
  • FBIS-EEU-90-208, 26 October 1990, pp. 19-20: "Slovak National Council Debates Language Bill: Slovaks Threaten General Strike," Bratislava Domestic Service in Slovak, 1340 GMT, 25 October 1990.
  • ?imko , Ivan . 1991 . "Kto zrádza tento národ?" [Who Betrays This Nation?] . Slovenský dennik [Slovak Daily] , 18 September "They talk about the need for unity in Slovakia, and that is truly necessary. Their obvious goal thereby, though, is to break up the one great movement, that has remained united, a movement to which populism is foreign, because it pursues its goals based upon the fundamental values of our civilization, upon Christianity."
  • ?tevík , Alexander . 1992 . "Let Us Restrain Ourselves and Unite" . Nový Slovák , 2 January JPRS-EER-92-011, 28 January 1992, p. 9
  • "Vyhla?enie Valného zhroma?denia Malice slovenskej."
  • Pithart , Petr . "Paradoxy rozchodu: Filozofická a mravní hlediska a evropské paralely" [Paradoxes of Separation: Philosophical and Moral Aspects and European Parallels] ” . In Rozloucení s Ceskoslovenském 219 – 220 .
  • Urban , Otto . 1992 . "ByIi jsme pred Ceskoslovenskem" [We Were Before Czechoslovakia] . Lidové noviny , 24 July The title echoes Palacký's famous nineteenth-century phrase, "We were before Austria, and we shall be after her."
  • Pithart . "Paradoxy rozchodu" ” . 220
  • Naegele , Jolyon . "Czech Republic: New Law on Foreigners Causes Confusion" . RFE/RL Features , http://www.rferl.Org/nca/features/2000/01/F.RU.000112154637.html
  • Hill , Don . "Czech Republic: Deputy Minister Faces Sharp Questions On Roma" . RFE/RL Features , http:/www.rferl.org/nca/features/1999/10/F.RU.991019135255.html
  • Gál , Fedor . "Rozpad Ceskoslovenska v politickej Perspektíve" [The Dissolution of Czechoslovakia in Political Perspective] . Roztoucents Ceskoslovenském , 159 Figures on minority distribution taken from Lidové noviny, 6 October 1993, citing official Council of Europe sources. See also the comment in Interestingly enough, the representatives of the Moravian nationalist tendency in the CNR in 1992 used a variant of the historical argument for their position: see the comments of Jiré Bitý, http://www.psp.cz/eknih/1992cnr/stenpro1/010schuz/ s010002.htm, "We derive our historical right from the fact that the Czech state did not exist before 1918. Only the Margraviate of Moravia, the Kingdom of Bohemia, and the Duchy of Silesia existed, and they were juridical parts of Cisleithania, that is Austria, and as such they freely entered into Czechoslovakia."
  • Sayer , Derek . 1998 . The Coasts of Bohemia: A Czech History , 52 Princeton : Princeton University Press .
  • Petrán , Josef and Petránová , Lydia . 1998 . "The White Mountain as Symbol in Modern Czech History" ” . In Bohemia in History , Edited by: Teich , >Mikulá? . 161 Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
  • de Weydenthal , Jan . 1996 . "Slovakia Moves Further to Restrict Democracy" . RFE/RL Features , 27 March http://www.rferl.org/nca/features/1996/03/ f.ru.96032714453314.html
  • Mudde , Cas . 2000 . "Populism in Eastern Europe-Part II" . RFE/RL East European Perspectives , 2 ( 6 ) http://www.rferl.org/eepreport/2000/03/06-220300.html

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