References
- Hoepken , Wolfgang . 1997 . "From Religious Identity to Ethnic Mobilisation: The Turks of Bulgaria before, under, and since Communism," ” . In Muslim Identity and the Balkan State , Edited by: Poulton , Hugh and Taji-Farouki , Suha . 78 London : C. Hurst .
- Vassilev , Rossen . 2002 . "Bulgaria's Ethnic Problems," . East European Quarterly , 36 ( 1 ) : 123
- Fearon , James D. and Laitin , David D. 1996 . "Explaining Interethnic Cooperation," . American Political Science Review , 90 ( 4 ) : 715 – 735 .
- Ibid., p. 715.
- Gurr , Robert Tedd . 2000 . "Ethnic Warfare on the Wane?" . Foreign Affairs , 79 ( 3 ) : 52 – 64 . In 1999, there were 23 de-escalating ethnic conflicts, 29 remaining constant, and seven escalating (p. 54)
- 1993 . Minorities at Risk: A Global View of Ethnopolitical Conflicts , Washington : U.S. Institute for Peace . Ibid., p. 55. See also, by the same author
- Levine , Victor T. 1997 . "Conceptualizing Ethnicity," . Studies in International Development , 32 ( 2 ) : 51
- Geertz , Clifford . 1963 . "The Integrative Revolution: Primordial Sentiments and Civil Politics in the New States," ” . In Old Societies and New States , Edited by: Geertz , Clifford . Glencoe , IL : Free Press .
- 1973 . The Interpretation of Culture: Selected Essays , New York : Basic Books .
- Gellner , Ernst . 1983 . Nations and Nationalism , Ithaca , NY : Cornell University Press . and London
- Smith , Anthony . 1987 . The Ethnic Origins of Nations , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Connor , Walker . 1993 . "Beyond Reason: The Nature of the Ethnonational Bond," . Ethnic and Racial Studies , 16 ( 3 ) : 373 – 389 .
- Shnirelman , Victor . 1996 . Who Gets the Past? Competition for Ancestors among Non-Russian Intellectuals in Russia , Washington : Woodrow Wilson Center Press . The policy of Serbia's Slobodan Milosevic would seem to exemplify this type of ethnicbased conflict. For a recent examination of this type of politically opportunistic use of "ethnology"
- Moore , Patrick . 2000 . "Different Issues, Different Priorities in Balkan Elections," . RFE-RL Report , September 8 Pockets of ethnic Turks are to be found throughout the Balkan peninsula, a natural consequence, perhaps, of the centuries-old Ottoman rule over much of this territory. Even as far west as Kosova there exists a Turkish minority that is significant in terms of electoral politics;
- Eminov , AIi . 2000 . "Turks and Tatars in Bulgaria and the Balkans," . Nationalities Papers , 28 ( 1 ) : 139
- 1991 . The Balkans: Minorities and States in Conflict , 123 London : Minority Rights . As Hugh Poulton noted a decade ago, the disparity represented a double concern for Bulgarian authorities, since the minority population was increasing much faster than that of the ethnic Bulgarians, and the southern, agricultural regions of the country were increasingly populated predominantly by various minorities. Awareness of this disparity may have contributed directly to the "Bulgarization" campaign of 1984-1985
- Crampton , R. J. 1990 . "The Turks in Bulgaria, 1878-1944," ” . In The Turks of Bulgaria: The History of Culture, and Political Fate of a Minority , Edited by: Karpat , Kemal . 71 – 78 . Istanbul : Isis Press . Ibid., p. 105. For a regional and city-by-city breakdown of the proportion of Turks in Bulgaria from 1880 to 1910
- Derleth , J. William . 2000 . The Transition in Central and Eastern European Politics , 122 – 142 . Upper Saddle River , NJ : Prentice-Hall . A succinct but good overview of Bulgarian history may be found in a useful timeline of Bulgaria from 1944-1998 is found on pp. 184-187 of that volume
- Poulton , Hugh . 1997 . "Islam, Ethnicity, and State in the Contemporary Balkans," ” . In Muslim Identity and the Balkan State , Edited by: Poulton , Hugh and Taji-Farouki , Suha . 16 – 17 . Washington Square , NY : New York University Press .
- Kucukcan , Talip . 1999 . "Re-claiming Identity: Ethnicity, Religion, and Politics among Turkish-Muslims in Bulgaria and Greece," . Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs , 19 ( 1 ) : 52
- Ibid., p. 17. However, as pointed out by Fearon and Laitin (1996), p. 731, the millet system was not successful everywhere, and over time the millet and kahal systems broke down, with awful consequences for all groups but especially for minorities. It is crucial that both spiral equilibria and ingroup policing will tend to reproduce and maintain the sense of ethnic difference through time. In addition, in-group policing may have the added liability that the same in-group institutions that prevent spiraling may be captured by ethnic entrepreneurs with an interest in fomenting ethnic violence and used by them to mobilize ethnic groups for conflict. Fortunately, and likely for a number of reasons, that liability has not materialized in postcommunist Bulgaria. The question, explored below, is why.
- Crampton , R. J. 1983 . Bulgaria 1878-1918: A History , Boulder : East European Monographs . For detailed historical accounts of this period
- Karpat , Kemal H. , ed. 1990 . "The Turks in Bulgaria, 1878-1944," ” . In The Turks of Bulgaria: The History, Culture, and Political Fate of a Minority , 43 – 78 . Istanbul : Isis Press .
- Karpat , Kemal H. 1990 . "Introduction: Bulgarian Way of Nation Building and the Turkish Minority," ” . In The Turks of Bulgaria: The History, Culture, and Political Fate of a Minority , Edited by: Karpat , Kemal H. 1 – 22 . Istanbul : Isis Press .
- Zhelyazkova , Antonina . 1998 . "The Social and Cultural Adaptation of the Bulgarian Emigrants in Turkey," ” . In From Adaptation to Nostalgia: The Bulgarian Turks in Turkey , Edited by: Zhelyazkova , Antonina . 6 Sofia : International Center for Minority Studies and Intel-cultural Relations .
- Zhelyazkova . "Social and Cultural Adaptation of the Bulgarian Emigrants into Turkey," ” . 13
- Khan , Mujeeb . 1999 . "View I" (Review Articles: "From the Balkans," 'Two Books," 'Two Reviews," and "Different Views") . Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs , 19 ( 2 ) : 330 Bilal Simsir a "noted Turkish historian," as referred to by
- Eminov , AIi . 1997 . Turkish and Other Minorities of Bulgaria , London : Routledge . See in particular Eminov, op. cit. Also
- This is not to minimize the highly significant role that religion plays in the complex web of society and politics in Bulgaria, as it does elsewhere. Sociological data from the middle of the 1980s indicated that ethnic Turks were considerably more religiously inclined than ethnic Bulgarians; Poulton, The Balkans, pp. 125-126.
- Linz , Juan L. and Stepan , Alfred . 1996 . Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe , Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press . consider Bulgaria to have been at or near the extreme totalitarian end of the political spectrum as late as 1988 "concerning autonomous groups in society" (p. 294)
- Oren , Nissan . 1971 . Bulgarian Communism: The Road to Power 1933-1944 , 259 New York : Columbia University Press .
- Rothschild , Joseph . 1959 . The Communist Party of Bulgaria: Origins and Development , New York : Columbia University Press .
- Smith , Graham . 1990 . "Nationalities Policy from Lenin to Gorbachev," ” . In The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union , Edited by: Smith , Graham . 1 – 20 . London : Longman . provides a succinct view of the nationality question; for background on the historical roots and ideology
- Denber , Rachel , ed. 1992 . "History and Ideology," ” . In The Soviet Nationality Reader , 11 – 101 . Boulder : Westview Press . the collection of essays in Part 1
- Fedoseev , P. H. 1974 . Leninizm I Natsional'niyi Vopros V Sovremmenom Uslovyak , Moscow : Politicheskaya Literature . Chapter 9.
- Fotev , Georgi . 1999 . Ethnicity, Religion, and Politics , 37 Sofia : Marin Drinov and Pensoft . Translation provided by Orlina Boteva
- Poulton . The Balkans 120
- Zhelyazkova, Chapter 1: "The Fate of the Turks in Bulgaria from 1878 to 1989," pp. 16-17.
- Poulton . The Balkans 119 – 120 .
- Ibid.
- Ibid., pp. 111-115. According to Poulton: more recently, "[h]owever, there appears to be less problems between Pomaks and Bulgarians than the case with Turks and Bulgarians" (p. 115).
- For an excellent overview of the period from the beginning of the 1984-1985 campaign until the mass exodus of Turks from Bulgaria in 1989, see Poulton, The Balkans, Chapters 10. "Bulgaria's Ethnic Turks-Forced Assimilation from 1984-1989" (pp. 129-151), and 11. "Bulgaria's Ethnic Turks-Mass Exodus in 1989" (pp. 153-161).
- Zhelyazkova, "The Fate of the Turks in Bulgaria from 1878 to 1989," in Social and Cultural Adaptation of the Bulgarian Emigrants into Turkey, p. 15: By some way of compensation for the eliminated religions and related everyday life traditions and rituals, the government followed the ideological cliches of "internationalism" and granted greater freedom of expression to the various ethnic groups with their respective cultures. These astonishing acts of tolerance, particularly toward the Turkish ethnic identity, were linked with the absurd idea of "exporting the revolution" on a worldwide scale. In this particular case the Bulgarian authorities, pressured by the Soviet secret services, took up the task of winning the confidence of the Turkish population and training the specialists required for exporting the communist ideology to Turkey. The very way of transferring the revolutionary cadres into Turkish territory was considered extremely simple to achieve-through conducting periodic emigration campaigns among the Bulgarian Turks.
- 1989 . "!Destroying Ethnic Identity: The Expulsion of the Bulgarian Turks," . Helsinki Watch , October : 1
- Eminov , Ali . 1997 . Turkish and Other Muslim Minorities in Bulgaria , 91 – 99 . New York : Routledge .
- Zhelyazkova . "The Turks in the Transitional Period from 1990-1997," ” . In Between Adaptation and Nostalgia 23
- Ibid.
- "Destroying Ethnic Identity: The Expulsion of the Bulgarian Turks," Helsinki Watch. The report views the anti-Turk campaign of May 1989 as a particularly intense continuation of the regime's general orientation toward the Turkish minority at least since the 1984-1985 assimilation campaign, and in some respects emblematic of the overall experience of the Turkish minority. The report notes curtly that "Bulgaria has a long established policy of attempting to destroy the identity of the Turks."
- Zhelyazkova , Antonina . "The Fate of the Turks in Bulgaria from 1878 to 1989," ” . In Between Adaptation and Nostalgia: The Bulgarian Turks in Turkey , Edited by: Zhelyazkova , Antonina . Sofia : International Center for Problems of Minorities and Cultural Interaction .
- Eminov . Turkish and Other Minorities of Bulgaria 164 – 165 . See also his "Epilogue," same volume, pp. 176-178
- Eminov . "Turks and Tatars in Bulgaria and the Balkans," ” . 142
- Assenova , Margarita . 2001 . "Bulgaria: The Rush to Build Coalitions," . Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Newsline , 6 February
- Eminov . Turkish and Other Muslim Minorities in Bulgaria 172 – 173 .
- 2000 . The U.S. Department of State's Human Rights Report for 1999: Bulgaria , Washington : Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor . for example, notes "high levels of discrimination" against the Roma but not against the Turkish minority. It does note, however, that "[t]here are no restrictions on speaking Turkish in public or the use of non-Slavic names" (p. 20); that government-funded, voluntary Turkish-language classes are offered in public schools (p. 20); and that although the government is attempting to correct the previously rampant discrimination in the military (pp. 21-22), "there are only a few ethnic Turkish, Pomak, and Romani officers in the military, and an insignificant number of high-ranking officers of the Muslim faith" (pp. 21-22)
- Gurr , Ted Robert . 1993 . Minorities at Risk: A Global View of Ethno-political Conflicts , 46 – 47 . Washington : U.S. Institute for Peace .
- Horowitz , Donald . 1985 . Ethnic Groups in Conflict , Berkeley : University of California Press .
- U.S. Department of State . Human Rights Report for 1999: Bulgaria 22
- Ibid., pp. 204-205.
- Lapidoth , Ruth . 1996 . Autonomy: Flexible Solutions to Ethnic Conflicts , 200 – 201 . Washington : U.S. Institute for Peace . The more or less persisting opportunity to emigrate may account, at least in part, for the apparent absence of a push for an autonomous regime for the Turks in Bulgaria. Also, the relatively small population of Turks in Bulgaria would make secession an unlikely scenario, especially given the presence of Turkey neighboring so closely, and given the relatively open borders for emigration that have existed since Bulgaria's independence was won in 1878. Such autonomy arrangements are difficult to make work in practice, and particularly under circumstances of serious discrepancy among ethnic groups
- Gottlieb , Gidon . 1993 . Nation against State: A New Approach to Ethnic Conflicts and the Decline of Sovereignty , New York : Council on Foreign Relations Press .
- Atanassova , Ivanka Nedeva . June 1999 . "The Impact of Ethnic Issues on the Security of South Eastern Europe," ” . In Report Commissioned by the NATO Office of Information and Press June , especially Section 5.1, "The Question of Status."
- Foreign Affairs , 72 ( 3 ) 22 – 29 . Perhaps in this case the distinctively different cultural-religious roots of each group may have been deliberately tolerated, perhaps even valued, by the other as a means of overcoming the larger threat to their common civilization. This is consistent with the findings of Jonathan Fox that the "clash of civilizations" thesis of Samuel Huntington
- Fox , Jonathan . 2002 . "Ethnic Minorities and the Clash of Civilizations: A Quantitative Analysis of Huntington's Thesis," . British Journal of Political Science , 32 ( 3 ) : 415 And The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World Order [New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996]) that "civilizational conflicts constitute a minority of ethnic conflicts" and that "there is no evidence that the intensity of civilizational conflicts have risen relative to other types of ethnic conflicts since the end of the Cold War."
- Naegele , Jolyon . 2000 . "Turkey: Foreign Relations Good with Two of Eight Neighbors," . Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty , 18 August located at www.rferl.org/nca/features/1998/ 08/F.RU.980813130211.html
- Kramer , Heinz . 2000 . A Changing Turkey: The Challenge to Europe and the United States , 146 – 162 . Washington : Blockings Institution Press .
- Ibid., p. 715.
- Petro , Nicolai . 2001 . "Creating Social Capital in Russia: The Novgorod Model," . World Development , 29 Spring : 229 – 244 . For a cogent overview of major works dealing with these themes
- 2000 . "Bulgarian State to Air News in Turkish," . AP Worldstream (COMTEX) , 1 October
- U.S. Department of State . Human Rights Report for 1999: Bulgaria 20 On 3 November 2000, a conference of Bulgarian Muslims was held in Sofia to deal, among other things, with issues of relations among various groups in
- Bulgarian society . 2000 . 'Bulgaristan Müslümanlari Ulusal Konferansi Sofya'da yapildi' . Zaman , 3 November : 1
- Ali Eminov, Turkish and Other Muslim Minorities in Bulgaria.
- Nelson , Linda and Eminov , AIi . 1997 . Turkish and Other Muslim Minorities in Bulgaria , New York : Routledge .
- 2000 . Bulgarian Studies Association Newsletter , 30 ( 2 ) : 7