References
- Liebow , Elliot . 1967 . TALLY'S CORNER: A STUDY OF NEGRO STREETCORNER MEN , Boston : Little Brown . For some interesting participant observation studies see:
- Becker , Howard , Geer , Blanche and Hughes , Everett C. 1968 . MAKING THE GRADE: THE ACADEMIC SIDE OF COLLEGE LIFE , New York : Wiley .
- Polsky , Ned . 1967 . HUSTLERS’ BEATS AND OTHERS , Chicago : Aldine .
- Bormann , Ernest . 1970 . “The Paradox and Promise of Small Group Research” . SPEECH MONOGRAPHS , 37 : 214
- Vidmar , Neil and Hackman , Robert . 1971 . “Interlaboratory Generalizability of Small Group Research: An Exploratory Study” . JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY , 83 : 129
- Sherif , Muzifer . 1961 . REFERENCE GROUPS , New York : Harper .
- Black , Edwin and Bitzer , Lloyd , eds. 1971 . “Rhetorical Studies for the Contemporary World” . In THE PROSPECT OF RHETORIC , 21 – 43 . New Jersey : Prentice‐Hall .
- Vidmar , Neil and Hackman , Robert . 1971 . “Interlaboratory Generalizability of Small Group Research: An Exploratory Study” . JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY , 83 : 129
- Webb , Eugene , Campbell , Donald , Schwartz , Richard and Sechrest , Lee . 1966 . UNOBTRUSIVE MEASURES: A SURVEY OF UNCONVENTIONAL AND NON‐REACTIVE MEASURES FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH , Chicago : Rand McNally . For a review of available quantitative and nonquantitative approaches to field research see
- Becker , Howard . 1970 . SOCIOLOGICAL METHOD , Chicago : Aldine .
- Selditch , Morris Jr. 1962 . “Some Methodological Problems of Field Studies” . AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY , 67 : 566 – 576 . Some proponents of participant observation argue that investigators should avoid formulating hypotheses because they may seek information that confirms the research expectations and dismiss contradictory data. See, for ex‐ple,
- Bruyn , Severyn . 1963 . “The Methodology of Participant Observation” . HUMAN ORGANIZATION , 22 : 224 – 235 . For an analysis of the function of observation and interviewing in participant observation see
- Becker , Howard S. 1954 . “A Note on Interviewing Tactics” . HUMAN ORGANIZATION , 13 : 31 – 42 .
- Bales , Robert . 1950 . INTERACTION PROCESS ANALYSIS: A METHOD FOR THE STUDY OF SMALL GROUPS , Cambridge : Addison‐Wesley .
- Scheidel , Thomas and Crowell , Laura . 1964 . “Idea Development in Small Group Discussions” . QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SPEECH , 50 : 140 – 145 . Guides that are not quantitatively oriented include
- Axinn , Gail and Axinn , Neil . 1969 . “The Indigenous Observer, Diary Keeping: A Methodological Note” . HUMAN ORGANIZATION , 14 : 78 – 86 .
- Collier , John . 1967 . VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY: PHOTOGRAPHY AS A RESEARCH METHOD , New York : Holt, Rinehart, and Winston .
- Festinger , Leon . 1956 . PROPHESY UNFULFILLED New York
- Burgess , Ernest . 1965 . “Discussion” . In THE JACK ROLLER , Edited by: Shaw , C. 184 – 197 . Chicago : University Chicago Press .
- Shuter , Robert . 1973 . THE FREE SCHOOL: A STUDY OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE ON SMALL GROUP BEHAVIOR , Northwestern University . Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation,
- Babchuk , Nicholas . 1962 . “The Role of the Researcher as Participant Observer and Partic‐ipant‐as‐Observer in the Field Situation” . HUMAN ORGANIZATION , 21 : 225 – 230 . For an incisive discussion about establishing rapport with subjects see
- Shuter , Robert . 1973 . “Free School Norms: A Case Study in External Influence on Internal Group Development” . JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE , 9 : 281 – 293 . This writer, for example, posed as a teacher's aide to gain permanent entree into an alternative school because its members did not permit strangers and especially researchers to observe the school's daily activities. See
- Gold , Robert . 1958 . “Roles in Sociological Field Observations” . SOCIAL FORCES , 36 : 217 – 223 . For an examination of role strategies see
- Lindeman , Edward . 1924 . SOCIAL DISCOVERY , 131 New York : Travistock .
- Whyte , William . 1955 . STREET CORNER SOCIETY , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
- Boek , Walter . 1965 . “Field Techniques in Delineating the Structure of Community Leadership” . HUMAN ORGANIZATION , 24 : 358 – 364 .
- Short , James and Strodtbeck , Fred . 1963 . “The Response of Gang Leaders to Status Threats” . AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY , 68 : 571 – 579 .
- Jackson , Philip . 1968 . LIFE IN CLASSROOMS , Holt, Rinehart, and Winston .
- Shuter , Robert . 1973 . “Free School Norms: A Case Study in External Influence on Internal Group Development” . JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE , 9 : 281 – 293 .
- Work , William , ed. August 1968 . SUMMARY REPORT: CONFERENCE ON SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT , August , Chicago : Speech Association of America .
- Shuter , Robert . . “Cross‐Cultural Small Group Research: A Review, an Analysis, and a Theory” . Presented at International Communication Association Convention . Marquette University . Unpublished manuscript,