Rethinking validity and reliability in content analysis

References

• Ader , C. R. 1995 . A longitudinal study of agenda setting for the issue of environmental pollution . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 72 : 300 – 331 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anastasi , A. 1976 . Psychological testing , (4th ed.) , New York : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Babbie , E. 1992 . The practice of social research , Belmont, CA : Wadsworth .
   Google Scholar
• Bartko , J. J. and Carpenter , W. T. 1976 . Methods and theory of reliability . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 163 : 307 – 317 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berelson , B. 1952 . Content analysis in communication research , New York : The Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Carlsmith , J. M. , Ellsworth , P. C. and Aronson , E. 1976 . Methods of research in social psychology , Reading, MA : Addison‐Wesley .
   Google Scholar
• Chiles , A. M. and Zorn , T. E. 1995 . Empowerment in organizations: Employees’ perceptions of the influences on empowerment . Journal of Applied Communication Research , 23 : 1 – 25 .
   Google Scholar
• Cohen , J. 1960 . A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales . Educational and Psychological Measurement , 20 : 37 – 46 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole , J. 1995 . The UCLA television violence monitoring report , Los Angeles, CA : UCLA Center for Communication Policy .
   Google Scholar
• Coulson , D. C. and Hansen , A. 1995 . The Louisville Courier‐Journal's news content after purchase by Gannett . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 72 : 205 – 215 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davie , W. R. and Lee , J‐S. 1995 . Sex, violence and consonance/differentiation: An analysis of local TV news values . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 72 : 128 – 138 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans , W. 1995 . The mundane and the arcane: Prestige media coverage of social and natural science . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 72 : 168 – 177 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folger , J. P. , Hewes , D. E. and Poole , M. S. 1984 . “ Coding social interaction ” . In Progress in communication sciences , Edited by: Dervin , B. and Voigt , M. J. Volume IV , 115 – 161 . Norwood, NJ : Ablex .
   Google Scholar
• Franz , C. R. and Jin , G. 1995 . The structure of group conflict in a collaborative work group during information systems development . Journal of Applied Communication Research , 23 : 108 – 127 .
   Google Scholar
• Gerbner , G. , Gross , L. , Morgan , M. and Signorielli , N. 1980 . The “mainstreaming” of America: Violence profile no. 11 . Journal of Communication , 30 (3) : 10 – 29 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaser , B. G. and Strauss , A. L. 1967 . The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research , Chicago : Aldine .
   Google Scholar
• Glass , G. V. and Stanley , J. C. 1970 . Statistical methods in education and psychology , Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice‐Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Gorham , J. 1994 . Sex in primetime television: An analysis of content trends, context categories, and sampling considerations . Communication Research Reports , 11 : 177 – 188 .
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg , B. S. 1980 . Life on television: Content analysis of U. S. TV drama , Norwood, NJ : Ablex .
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg , B. S. , Edison , N. , Korzenny , F. , Fernandez‐Collado , C. and Atkin , C. K. 1980 . Life on television: Content analysis of U. S. TV drama , Edited by: Greenberg , B. S. 99 – 128 . Norwood, NJ : Ablex .
   Google Scholar
• Hays , W. L. 1981 . Statistics , (3rd ed.) , New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston .
   Google Scholar
• Hecht , M. , Trost , M. R. , Bator , R. J. and MacKinnon , D. 1997 . Ethnicity and sex similarities and differences in drug resistance . Journal of Applied Communication Research , 25 : 75 – 97 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holsti , O. R. 1969 . Content analysis for the social sciences and the humanities , Reading, MA : Addison‐Wesley .
   Google Scholar
• Johnston , A. and White , A. B. 1994 . Communication styles and female candidates: A study of the political advertising during the 1986 senate elections . Journalism Quarterly , 71 : 321 – 329 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kenny , D. A. 1991 . A general model of consensus and accuracy in interpersonal perception . Psychological Review , 98 : 155 – 163 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerlinger , F. N. 1986 . Foundations of behavioral research , (3rd ed.) , New York : CBS College Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• King , E. G. 1995 . The flawed characters in the campaign: Prestige newspaper assessments of the 1992 presidential candidates’ integrity and competence . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 72 : 84 – 97 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krippendorff , K. 1980 . Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology , Beverly Hills, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Kunkel , D. , Farinola , W. J. , Cope , K. M. , Donnerstein , E. , Bielby , E. and Zwarun , L. 1998 . An assessment of the television industry's use of V‐chip ratings , Menlo Park, CA : Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation .
   Google Scholar
• Lazarsfeld , P. F. and Barton , A. 1969 . “ Qualitative measurement: A codification of techniques for social science ” . In The nature and scope of social science: A critical anthology , Edited by: Krimerman , L. I. 514 – 549 . New York : Appleton‐Century‐Crofts .
   Google Scholar
• Leslie , M. 1995 . Slow fade to?: Advertising in Ebony magazine, 1957–1989 . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 72 : 426 – 435 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis , C. and Neville , J. 1995 . Images of Rosie: A content analysis of women workers in American magazine advertising, 1940–1946 . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 72 : 216 – 227 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowry , D. T. and Shidler , J. A. 1995 . The sound bites, the biters, and the bitten: An analysis of network TV news bias in campaign ‘92 . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 72 : 33 – 44 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McShane , S. L. 1995 . Occupational, gender, and geographic representation of information sources in U.S. and Canadian business magazines . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 72 : 190 – 204 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mustonen , A. and Pulkkinen , L. 1993 . Aggression in television programs in Finland . Aggressive Behavior , 19 : 175 – 183 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oliver , M. B. 1994 . Portrayals of crime, race, and aggression in “reality‐based” police shows: A content analysis . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 38 : 179 – 192 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmer , M. T. and Simmons , K. B. 1995 . Communicating intentions through nonverbal behaviors: Conscious and nonconscious encoding of liking . Human Communication Research , 22 : 128 – 160 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perreault , W. D. Jr. and Leigh , L. E. 1989 . Reliability of nominal data based on qualitative judgments . Journal of Marketing Research , 26 : 135 – 48 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poole , M. S. and Folger , J. P. 1981 . Modes of observation and the validation of interaction analysis schemes . Small Group Behavior , 12 : 477 – 493 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Popping , R. 1988 . “ On agreement indices for nominal data ” . In Sociometric research, Volume 1: Data collection and scaling , Edited by: Saris , W. E. and Gallhofer , I. N. 90 – 105 . New York : St. Martin's Press .
   Google Scholar
• Potter , W. J. and Ware , W. 1987 . An analysis of the contexts of antisocial acts on prime‐time television . Communication Research , 14 : 664 – 686 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reel , B. W. and Thompson , T. L. 1994 . A test of the effectiveness of strategies for talking about AIDS and condom use . Journal of Applied Communication Research , 22 : 127 – 140 .
   Google Scholar
• Rogan , R. G. and Hammer , M. R. 1994 . Crisis negotiations: A preliminary investigation of facework in naturalistic conflict discourse . Journal of Applied Communication Research , 22 : 216 – 231 .
   Google Scholar
• Sabourin , T. C. 1995 . The role of negative reciprocity in spouse abuse: A relational control analysis . Journal of Applied Communication Research , 23 : 271 – 283 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott , W. A. 1955 . Reliability of content analysis: The case of nominal scale coding . Public Opinion Quarterly , 19 : 321 – 25 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shidler , J. A. and Lowry , D. T. 1995 . Network TV sex as a counter programming strategy during a sweeps period: An analysis of content and ratings . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 72 : 147 – 157 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Signorielli , N. 1990 . “ Television's mean and dangerous world: A continuation of the cultural indicators perspective ” . In Cultivation analysis: New directions in media effects research , Edited by: Signorielli , N. and Morgan , M. 85 – 106 . Newbury Park, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Signorielli , N. , McLeod , D. and Healy , E. 1994 . Gender stereotypes in MTV commercials: The beat goes on . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 38 : 91 – 101 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , L. J. 1994 . A content analysis of gender differences in children's advertising . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 38 : 323 – 337 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , S. L. 1997 . The effective use of fear appeals in persuasive immunization: An analysis of national immunization intervention messages . Journal of Applied Communication Research , 25 : 264 – 292 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stempel , G. H. III . 1989 . “ Content analysis ” . In Research methods in mass communication , 2nd ed. , Edited by: Stempel , G. H. III and Westley , B. H. 124 – 136 . Englewood, NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Tapper , J. , Thorson , E. and Black , D. 1994 . Variations in music videos as a function of their musical genre . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 38 : 103 – 113 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Traub , R. E. 1994 . Reliability for the social sciences: Theory and applications , Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Wimmer , R. D. and Dominick , J. R. 1991 . Mass media research: An introduction , Belmont, CA : Wadsworth .
   Google Scholar
• Zhang , G‐Q. and Kraus , S. 1995 . Constructing public opinion and manipulating symbols: China's press coverage of the student movement in 1989 . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 72 : 412 – 425 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar