Minority Stress and Mental Health: A Review of the Literature

References

• Alegria, C. A. (2011). Transgender identity and health care: Implications for psychosocial and physical evaluation. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, 23(4), 175–182. doi:10.1111/j.1745-7599.2010.00595.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
   Google Scholar
• Aneshensel, C. S. (1992). Social stress: Theory and research. Annual Review of Sociology, 18(1), 15–38. doi:10.1146/annurev.so.18.080192.000311
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Averett, P., Robinson, A., Jenkins, C., & Yoon, I. (2013). “I want to know more about who we are”: New directions for research with older lesbians. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 57(2–4), 349–361. doi:10.1080/01634372.2013.860651
   Google Scholar
• Balsam, K. F., Beauchaine, T. P., Mickey, R. M., & Rothblum, E. D. (2005). Mental health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and heterosexual siblings: Effects of gender, sexual orientation, and family. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114(3), 471–476. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.114.3.471
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balsam, K. F., Lehavot, K., Beadnell, B., & Circo, E. (2010). Childhood abuse and mental health indicators among ethnically diverse lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 78(4), 459–468. doi:10.1037/a0018661
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balsam, K. F., & Mohr, J. J. (2007). Adaptation to sexual orientation stigma: A comparison of bisexual and lesbian/gay adults. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 306–319. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.306
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balsam, K. F., Molina, Y., Beadnell, B., Simoni, J., & Walters, K. (2011). Measuring multiple minority stress: The LGBT people of color microaggressions scale. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17(2), 163–174. doi:10.1037/a0023244
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. M., & Lindenberger, U. (1999). Lifespan psychology: Theory and application to intellectual functioning. Annual Review of Psychology, 50(1), 471–507. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.471
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bockting, W. O., Miner, M. H., Swinburne Romine, R. E., Hamilton, A., & Coleman, E. (2013). Stigma, mental health, and resilience in an online sample of the U.S. transgender population. American Journal of Public Health, 103(5), 943–951. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2013.301241
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chae, D. H., & Ayala, G. (2010). Sexual orientation and sexual behavior among Latino and Asian Americans: Implications for unfair treatment and psychological distress. Journal of Sex Research, 47(5), 451–459. doi:10.1080/00224490903100579
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chae, D. H., Krieger, N., Bennett, G. G., Lindsey, J. C., Stoddard, A. M., & Barbeau, E. M. (2010). Implications of discrimination based on sexuality, gender, and race/ethnicity for psychological distress among working-class sexual minorities: The United for Health Study, 2003-2004. International Journal of Health Services, 40(4), 589–608. doi:10.2190/HS.40.4.b
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, Y.-C., & Shick Tryon, G. (2012). Dual minority stress and Asian American gay men’s psychological distress. Journal of Community Psychology, 40(5), 539–554. doi:10.1002/jcop.21481
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans. A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54(10), 805–816. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.805
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox, N., Vanden Berghe, W., Dewaele, A., & Vinke, J. (2008). General and minority stress in an LGB population in Flanders. Journal of LGBT Health Research, 4(4), 181–194. doi:10.1080/15574090802657168
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Crenshaw, K. (1990). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241. doi:10.2307/1229039
   Google Scholar
• Cronin, A., & King, A. (2010). Power, inequality and identification: Exploring diversity and intersectionality amongst older LGB adults. Sociology: Journal of the British Sociological Association, 44(5), 876–892. doi:10.1177/0038038510375738
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dannefer, D., & Daub, A. (2009). Extending the interrogation: Life span, life course, and the constitution of human aging. Advances in Life Course Research, 14(1–2), 15–27. doi:10.1016/j.alcr.2009.05.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dannefer, D., & Kelley-Moore, J. A. (2009). Theorizing the life course: New twists in the path. In Handbook of theories of aging (2nd ed., pp. 389–412). New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.
   Google Scholar
• De Vries, B. (2014). LG (BT) persons in the second half of life: The intersectional influences of stigma and cohort. LGBT Health, 1(1), 18–23. doi:10.1089/lgbt.2013.0005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dilley, J. A., Simmons, K. W., Boysun, M. J., Pizacani, B. A., & Stark, M. J. (2010). Demonstrating the importance and feasibility of including sexual orientation in public health surveys: Health disparities in the Pacific Northwest. American Journal of Public Health, 100(3), 460–467. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2007.130336
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dohrenwend, B. P. (2000). The role of adversity and stress in psychopathology: Some evidence and its implications for theory and research. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 41(1), 1–19. doi:10.2307/2676357
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durso, L. E., & Meyer, I. H. (2013). Patterns and predictors of disclosure of sexual orientation to healthcare providers among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 10(1), 35–42. doi:10.1007/s13178-012-0105-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elder, G. H. (1994). Time, human agency, and social change perspectives on the life-course. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57(1), 4–15. doi:10.2307/2786971
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elder, G. H. (1998). The life course as developmental theory. Child Development, 69(1), 1–12. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06128.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feinstein, B. A., Goldfried, M. R., & Davila, J. (2012). The relationship between experiences of discrimination and mental health among lesbians and gay men: An examination of internalized homonegativity and rejection sensitivity as potential mechanisms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80(5), 917–927. doi:10.1037/a0029425
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fingerhut, A. W., Peplau, L. A., & Gable, S. L. (2010). Identity, minority stress and psychological well-being among gay men and lesbians. Psychology & Sexuality, 1(2), 101–114. doi:10.1080/19419899.2010.48459
   Google Scholar
• Foucault, M. (1978). The history of sexuality (Vol. 1, 1st American ed.). New York: Pantheon Books.
   Google Scholar
• Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I., Cook-Daniels, L., Kim, H.-J., Erosheva, E. A., Emlet, C. A., Hoy-Ellis, C. P., … Muraco, A. (2013). Physical and mental health of transgender older adults: An at-risk and underserved population. The Gerontologist, 54(3), 488–500. doi:10.1093/geront/gnt021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I., Emlet, C. A., Kim, H.-J., Muraco, A., Erosheva, E. A., Goldsen, J., & Hoy-Ellis, C. P. (2013). The physical and mental health of lesbian, gay male, and bisexual (LGB) older adults: The role of key health indicators and risk and protective factors. The Gerontologist, 53(4), 664–675. doi:10.1093/geront/gns123
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I., Hoy-Ellis, C. P., & Brown, M. (2017). Addressing behavioral cancer risks from a LGBT health equity perspective. In U. Boehmer, and R. Elk (Eds.), Cancer and the LGBT community: Unique perspectives from risk to survivorship (pp. 37–62). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I., Kim, H.-J., Barkan, S. E., Muraco, A., & Hoy-Ellis, C. P. (2013). Health disparities among lesbian, gay male and bisexual older adults: Results from a population-based study. American Journal of Public Health, 103(10), 1802–1809. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.301110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I., & Muraco, A. (2010). Aging and sexual orientation: A 25-year review of the literature. Research on Aging, 32(3), 372–413. doi:10.1177/0164027509360355
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman, M. S., Marshal, M. P., Guadamuz, T. E., Wei, C. Y., Wong, C. F., Saewyc, E. M., & Stall, R. (2011). A meta-analysis of disparities in childhood sexual abuse, parental physical abuse, and peer victimization among sexual minority and sexual nonminority individuals. American Journal of Public Health, 101(8), 1481–1494. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2009.190009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friend, R. A. (1991). Older lesbian and gay people: A theory of successful aging. Journal of Homosexuality, 20(3), 99–118. doi:10.1300/J082v20n03_07
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao, S., Assink, M., Cipriani, A., & Lin, K. (2017). Associations between rejection sensitivity and mental health outcomes: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 57, 59–74. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.08.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glover Reed, B., Newman, P. A., Suarez, Z. E., & Lewis, E. A. (2011). Interpersonal practice: Beyond diversity and toward social justice. The importance of critical consciousness. In B. A. Seabury, B. H. Seabury, and C. D. Garvin (Eds.), Foundations of interpersonal practice in social work: Promoting competence in general practice (3rd ed., pp. 60–98). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Hammack, P. L., & Cohler, B. J. (2011). Narrative, identity, and the politics of exclusion: Social change and the gay and lesbian life course. Sexuality Research & Social Policy, 8(3), 162–182. doi:10.1007/s13178-011-0060-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hankivsky, O. (2012). Women’s health, men’s health, and gender and health: Implications of intersectionality. Social Science & Medicine, 74(11), 1712–1720. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.11.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Bellatorre, A., Lee, Y., Finch, B. K., Muennig, P., & Fiscella, K. (2014). Structural stigma and all-cause mortality in sexual minority populations. Social Science & Medicine, 103, 33–41. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.06.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Keyes, K. M., & Hasin, D. S. (2009). State-level policies and psychiatric morbidity in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations. American Journal of Public Health, 99(12), 2275–2281. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2008.153510
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatzenbuehler, M. L., McLaughlin, K. A., Keyes, K. M., & Hasin, D. S. (2010). The impact of institutional discrimination on psychiatric disorders in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: A prospective study. American Journal of Public Health, 100(3), 452–459. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2009.168815
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Erickson, S. J. (2008). Minority stress predictors of HIV risk behavior, substance use, and depressive symptoms: Results from a prospective study of bereaved gay men. Health Psychology, 27(4), 455–462. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.27.4.455
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Health and Medicine Division. (2011). The health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people: Building a foundation for better understanding. Washington, DC: The National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine.
   Google Scholar
• Hendricks, M. L., & Testa, R. J. (2012). A conceptual framework for clinical work with transgender and gender noncomforming clients: An adaptation of the minority stress model. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(5), 460–467. doi:10.1037/a0029597
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herek, G. M., & Garnets, L. D. (2007). Sexual orientation and mental health. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3(1), 353–375. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091510
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herek, G. M. (2009). Hate crimes and stigma-related experiences among sexual minority adults in the United States: Prevalence estimates from a national probability sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24(1), 54–74. doi:10.1177/0886260508316477
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hightow-Weidman, L. B., Phillips, G., Jones, K. C., Outlaw, A. Y., Fields, S. D., & Smith, J. C.; YMSM of Color SPNS Initiative Study Group. (2011). Racial and sexual identity-related maltreatment among minority YMSM: Prevalence, perceptions, and the association with emotional distress. AIDS Patient Care STDS, Suppl 25(S1), S39–S45 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogg, M. A., Terry, D. J., & White, K. M. (1995). A tale of two theories: A critical comparison of identity theory with social identity theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 58(4), 255–269. doi:10.2307/2787127
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoy-Ellis, C. P., & Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I. (2016). Lesbian, gay, & bisexual older adults: Linking internal minority stressors, chronic health conditions, and depression. Aging and Mental Health, Advance Online Access, 1–10. doi:10.1080/13607863.2016.1168362
   Google Scholar
• Hoy-Ellis, C. P., & Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I. (2017). The mental health of transgender older adults: General and minority stress. American Journal of Community Psychology, 59(3–4), 295–305. doi:10.1002/ajcp.12138
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoy-Ellis, C. P., Shiu, C., Sullivan, K. M., Kim, H. J., Sturges, A. M., & Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I. (2017). Prior military service, identity stigma, and mental health among transgender older adults. The Gerontologist, 57(suppl 1), S63–S71. doi:10.1093/geront/gnw173
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoy-Ellis, C. P. (2016). Concealing concealment: The mediating role of internalized heterosexism in psychological distress among lesbian, gay, and bisexual older adults. Journal of Homosexuality, 63(4), 487–506. doi:10.1080/00918369.2015.1088317
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoy-Ellis, C. P. (2017). Chapter 8: Older adults. In K. L. Eckstrand, and J. Potter (Eds.), Trauma, resilience, and health promotion for LGBT patients: What every healthcare provider should know (pp. 89–104). New York, NY: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Campaign. (2017). Why the equality act? Resource. Retrieved August 17, 2017, from http://www.hrc.org//resources/entry/why-the-equality-act
   Google Scholar
• Jones, J., & Pugh, S. (2005). Aging gay men: Lessons from the sociology of embodiment. Men and Masculinities, 7(3), 248–260. doi:10.1177/1097184X04265990
   Google Scholar
• Juster, R.-P., Bizik, G., Picard, M., Arsenault-Lapierre, G., Sindi, S., Trepanier, L., … Lupien, S. J. (2011). A transdisciplinary perspective of chronic stress in relation to psychopathology throughout life span development. Development & Psychopathology, 23(3), 725–776. doi:10.1017/S0954579411000289
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz-Wise, S. L., Rosario, M., Calzo, J. P., Scherer, E. A., Sarda, V., & Austin, S. B. (2017). Associations of timing of sexual orientation developmental milestones and other sexual minority stressors with internalizing mental health symptoms among sexual minority young adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(5), 1441–1452. doi:10.1007/s10508-017-0964-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelleher, C. (2009). Minority stress and health: Implications for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) youth. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 22(4), 373–379. doi:10.1080/09515070903334995
   Google Scholar
• Kelly-Irving, M., Mabile, L., Grosclaude, P., Lang, T., & Delpierre, C. (2013). The embodiment of adverse childhood experiences and cancer development: Potential biological mechanisms and pathways across the life course. International Journal of Public Health, 58(1), 3–11. doi:10.1007/s00038-012-0370-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kertzner, R. M., Meyer, I. H., Frost, D. M., & Stirratt, M. J. (2009). Social and psychological well-being in lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals: The effects of race, gender, age, and sexual identity. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 79(4), 500–510. doi:10.1037/a0016848
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimmel, D. C. (1978). Adult development and aging: A gay perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 34(3), 113–130. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1978.tb02618.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King, M., Semlyen, J., Tai, S. S., Killaspy, H., Osborn, D., Popelyuk, D., & Nazareth, I. (2008). A systematic review of mental disorder, suicide, and deliberate self harm in lesbian, gay and bisexual people. BMC Psychiatry, 8(1), 70. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-8-70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krieger, N. (2000). Discrimination and health. In L. Berkman & I. Kawachi (Eds.), Social epidemiology (pp. 36–75). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kuyper, L., & Fokkema, T. (2011). Minority stress and mental health among Dutch LGBs: Examination of differences between sex and sexual orientation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(2), 222–233. doi:10.1037/a0022688
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus, R. S. (1993). From psychological stress to the emotions: A history of changing outlooks. Annual Review of Psychology, 44(1), 1–21. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.000245
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lea, T., de Wit, J., & Reynolds, R. (2014). Minority stress in lesbian, gay, and bisexual young adults in Australia: Associations with psychological Distress, suicidality, and substance use. Archives of Sexual Behavior, Advanced Online Access, 43(8), 1571–1578. doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0266-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legate, N., Ryan, R. M., & Weinstein, N. (2012). Is coming out always a “good thing”? Exploring the relations of autonomy support, outness, and wellness for lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3(2), 145–152. doi:10.1177/1948550611411929
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehavot, K., & Simoni, J. M. (2011). The impact of minority stress on mental health and substance use among sexual minority women. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 79(2), 159–170. doi:10.1037/a0022839
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, R. J., Derlega, V. J., Clarke, E. G., & Kuang, J. C. (2006). Stigma consciousness, social constraints, and lesbian well-being. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 48–56. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.48
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, R. L., Derlega, V., Griffin, J. L., & Krowinski, A. S. (2003). Stressors for gay men and lesbians: Life stress, gay-related stress, stigma consciousness, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22(6), 716–729. doi:10.1521/jscp.22.6.716.22932
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshal, M. P., Friedman, M. S., Stall, R., King, K. M., Miles, J., Gold, M. A., … Morse, J. Q. (2008). Sexual orientation and adolescent substance use: A meta-analysis and methodological review. Addiction, 103(4), 546–556. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02149.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massachusetts Department of Public Health. (2009). The health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons with their heterosexual and non-transgender counterparts. Retrieved September 20, 2011, from Massachusetts: http://www.mass.gov/Eeohhs2/docs/dph/commissioner/lgbt_health_report.pdf
   Google Scholar
• McAdams, D. P. (2008). Personal narratives and the life story. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, and L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality theory and research (pp. 242–262). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• McAdams, D. P. (1998). Ego, trait, identity. In P. M. Westenberg, A. Blasi, & L. D. Cohn (Eds.), Personality development: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical investigations of Loevinger’s conception of ego development (pp. 27–38). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• McCall, L. (2005). The complexity of intersectionality. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 30(3), 1771–1800. doi:10.1086/426800
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McEwen, B. S. (2006). Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators: Central role of the brain. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 8(4), 367–381.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mendoza-Denton, R., Downey, G., Purdie, V. J., Davis, A., & Pietrzak, J. (2002). Sensitivity to status-based rejection: Implications for African American students’ college experience. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 83(4), 896–918. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.4.896
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, I. H., Ouellette, S. C., Haile, R., & McFarlane, T. A. (2011). “We’d be free”: Narratives of life without homophobia, racism, or sexism. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 8(3), 204–214. doi:10.1007/s13178-011-0063-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, I. H., Schwartz, S., & Frost, D. M. (2008). Social patterning of stress and coping: Does disadvantaged social statuses confer more stress and fewer coping resources? Social Science and Medicine, 67(3), 368–379. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, I. H. (1995). Minority stress and mental health in gay men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36(1), 38–56. doi:10.2307/2137286
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moradi, B., Wiseman, M. C., DeBlaere, C., Goodman, M. B., Sarkees, A., Brewster, M. E., & Huang, Y.-P. (2010). LGB of color and white individuals’ perceptions of heterosexist stigma, internalized homophobia, and outness: Comparisons of levels and links. The Counseling Psychologist, 38(3), 397–424. doi:10.1177/0011000009335263
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadal, K. L. (2013). That’s so gay!: Microaggressions and the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender community (1st ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities. (2018). Sexual and gender minorities formally designated as a health disparity population for research purposes [Press release]
   Google Scholar
• Newcomb, M. E., & Mustanski, B. (2010). Internalized homophobia and internalizing mental health problems: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(8), 1019–1029. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.07.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nurius, P. S., & Hoy-Ellis, C. P. (2013). Stress effects and health. In C. Franklin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social work online (pp. 1–16). New York: NASW & Oxford University Press. Retrieved August 22, 2016, from http://socialwork.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.001.0001/acrefore-9780199975839-e-1045?rskey=f3iOcW&result=10
   Google Scholar
• O’Donovan, A., Epel, E., Lin, J., Wolkowitz, O., Cohen, B., Maguen, S., … Neylan, T. C. (2011). Childhood trauma associated with short leukocyte telomere length in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 70(5), 465–471. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.01.035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oswald, R. F., & Masciadrelli, B. P. (2008). Generativity ritual among nonmetropolitan lesbian and gay men: Promoting social inclusion. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70(4), 1060–1073. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00546.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pachankis, J. E., Goldfried, M. R., & Ramrattan, M. E. (2008). Extension of the rejection sensitivity construct to the interpersonal functioning of gay men. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 76(2), 306–303 317. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.76.2.306
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearlin, L. I., Aneshensel, C. S., & LeBlanc, A. J. (1997). The forms and mechanisms of stress proliferation: The case of AIDS caregivers. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 38(3), 223–236. doi:10.2307/2955368
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peter, T., Edkins, T., Watson, R., Adjei, J., Homma, Y., & Saewyc, E. (2017). Trends in suicidality among sexual minority and heterosexual students in a Canadian population-based cohort study. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Dender Diversity, 4(1), 115–123. doi:10.1037/sgd0000211
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pew Research Center. (2013). A survey of LGBT Americans: Attitudes, experiences and values in changing times. Retrieved March 10, 2017, from Washington, DC: http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/06/13/a-survey-of-lgbt-americans/
   Google Scholar
• Poon, C. S., & Saewyc, E. M. (2009). Out yonder: Sexual-minority adolescents in rural communities in British Columbia. American Journal of Public Health, 99(1), 118–124. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2007.122945
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rawls, T. W. (2004). Disclosure and depression among older gay and homosexual men: Findings from the Urban Men’s Health Study. In G. Herdt, and B. de Vries (Eds.), Gay and lesbian aging: Research and future directions (pp. 117–141). New York, NY: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Riggle, E. D. B., Rostosky, S. S., & Horne, S. (2010). Does it matter where you live? Nondiscrimination laws and the experiences of LGB residents. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 7(3), 168–175. doi:10.1007/s13178-010-0016-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rofes, E. (1998). Dry bones breathe: Gay men creating post-AIDS identities and cultures. New York, NY: Harrington Park Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rogler, L. H. (2002). Historical generations and psychology: The case of the great depression and World War II. American Psychologist, 57(12), 1013–1023. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.57.12.1013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg, E., & Letrero, I. L. (2006). Using age, cohort, and period effects to study elderly volunteerism. Educational Gerontology, 32(5), 313–334. doi:10.1080/03601270600564008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandfort, T. G., Bakker, F., Schellevis, F. G., & Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2006). Sexual orientation and mental and physical health status: Findings from a Dutch population survey. American Journal of Public Health, 96(6), 1119–1125. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.058891
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarno, E., & Wright, A. J. (2013). Homonegative microaggressions and identity in bisexual men and women. Journal of Bisexuality, 13(1), 63–81. doi:10.1080/15299716.2013.756677
   Google Scholar
• Scandurra, C., Amodeo, A. L., Valerio, P., Bochicchio, V., & Frost, D. M. (2017). Minority stress, resilience, and mental health: A study of Italian transgender people. Journal of Social Issues, 73(3), 563–585. doi:10.1111/josi.12232
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shonkoff, J. P., Boyce, W. T., & McEwen, B. S. (2009). Neuroscience, molecular biology, and the childhood roots of health disparities: Building a new framework for health promotion and disease prevention. JAMA, 301(21), 2252–2259. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.754
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stirratt, M. J., Meyer, I. H., Ouellette, S. C., & Gara, M. A. (2008). Measuring identity multiplicity and intersectionality: Hierarchical classes analysis (HICLAS) of sexual, racial, and gender identities. Self and Identity, 7(1), 89–111. doi:10.1080/15298860701252203
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun, S., Budge, S., Shen, W., Xu, G., Liu, M., & Feng, S. (2020). Minority stress and health: A grounded theory exploration among men who have sex with men in China and implications for health research and interventions. Social Science & Medicine, 252, 112917. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.112917
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szymanski, D. M., Chung, Y. B., & Balsam, K. F. (2001). Psychosocial correlates of internalized homophobia in lesbians. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 34(1), 27–38. doi:10.1080/07481756.2001.12069020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szymanski, D. M., & Gupta, A. (2009). Examining the relationship between multiple internalized oppressions and African American lesbian, gay, bisexual, and questioning persons’ self-esteem and psychological distress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56(1), 110–118. doi:10.1037/a0013317
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szymanski, D. M., Kashubeck-West, S., & Meyer, J. (2008). Internalized heterosexism - A historical and theoretical overview. The Counseling Psychologist, 36(4), 510–524. doi:10.1177/0011000007309488
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szymanski, D. M., & Sung, M. R. (2010). Minority stress and psychological distress among Asian American sexual minority persons. The Counseling Psychologist, 38(6), 848–872. doi:10.1177/0011000010366167
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takacs, D. (2003). How does your positionality bias your epistemology? Thought & Action, 27–38.
   Google Scholar
• Testa, R. J., Habarth, J., Peta, J., Balsam, K., & Bockting, W. (2015). Development of the gender minority stress and resilience measure. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2(1), 65–77. doi:10.1037/sgd0000081
   Google Scholar
• Thoits, P. A. (1991). On merging identity theory and stress research*. Social Psychology Quarterly, 54(2), 101–112. doi:10.2307/2786929
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thoits, P. A. (1995). Stress, coping, and social support processes: Where are we? What next? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35(1), 53–79. doi:10.2307/2626957
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thoits, P. A. (2011). Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental health. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 52(2), 145–161. doi:10.1177/0022146510395592
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2017). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender health. 2020 Topics & Objectives. Retrieved April 18, 2016, from https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topics-objectives/topic/lesbian-gay-bisexual-and-transgender-health/objectives
   Google Scholar
• Wallace, S. P., Cochran, S. D., Durazo, E. M., & Ford, C. L. (2011). The health of aging lesbian, gay and bisexual adults in California. Los Angeles, CA: UCLA Center for Health Policy Research.
   Google Scholar
• Walters, K. L., & Simoni, J. M. (2002). Reconceptualizing native women’s health: An “indigenist” stress-coping model. American Journal of Public Health, 92(4), 520–524. doi:10.2105/AJPH.92.4.520
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss, J. T. (2004). GL vs. BT: The archaeology of biphobia and transphobia within the U.S. gay and lesbian community. Journal of Bisexuality, 3(3–4), 25–55. doi:10.1300/J159v03n03_02
   Google Scholar
• Yang, F. M., & Levkoff, S. E. (2005). Ageism and minority populations: Strengths in the face of challenge. Generations, 29(3), 42–48.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar