References
- Glasser, William, M.D. Control Theory in the Classroom. Harper & Row, 1986.
- Humphreys, B., and others. “Effects of Cooperative, Competitive and Individualistic Learning on Students' Achievement in Science.” Journal of Research in Science Teaching, May 1982, Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 351–6.
- Johnson, David W., and others. Circles of Learning, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1984.
- Kohn, Alphie. No Contest, The Case Against Competition. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1986.
- Kohn, Alphie. “How to Succeed Without Even Vying.” Psychology Today, September 1986, pp. 22–28.
- Lepper, Mark R. “Extrinsic Reward and Intrinsic Motivation: Implications for the Classroom,” Chapter 12, Levine & Wang, ed., Teacher and Student perceptions, Erlbaum, 1983.
- “Who Learns from Competitions.” Music Educators Journal, October 1983, Vol. 70, No. 2, pp. 34–3.
- Betty Livengood is Director of General Education for the Mineral County Schools in Keyser, West Virginia and has long been an advocate for middle schools.
Supplementary Bibliography
- Ames, C. “Achievement Attributions and Self-Instructions Under Competitive and Individualistic Goal Structures.” Journal of Educational Psychology, 76 (June 1984), 478–87.
- Ames, C. “Competitive Versus Cooperative Reward Structures: The Influence of Individual and Group Performance on Achievement Attributions and Affect.” American Educational Research Journal, 18 (Fall 1981), 273–87.
- Arth, A. A, and others. “Introducing Competition to the Middle Level Classroom: Providing for Success.” National Association of Secondary School Principals' Bulletin, 68 (September 1984), 63–8.
- Covington, M. V., and C. L. Omelich. “Task-Oriented Versus Competitive Learning Structures: Motivational and Performance Consequences.” Journal of Educational Psychology, 76 (December 1984), 1038–50.
- Fitzgerald, M.A., and G. H. Frankie. “Effects of Age and Communication on Cooperation and Competition in Children and Adolescents.” Journal of Genetic Psychology, 141 (December 1982), 295–6.
- Flynn, T. M., and J. Beasley, “Experimental Study of the Effects of Competition on the Self-Concept.” Adolescence, 15 (Winter 1980), 799–806.
- Galejs, I., and D. F. Stockdale. “Social Competence, School Behaviors, and Cooperative-Competitive Preferences: Assessments by Parents, Teachers, and School Age Children.” Journal of Genetic Psychology, 141 (December 1982), 243–52.
- Jagocenski, G. M., and J. G. Nicholls. “Conceptions of Ability and Related Affects in Task Involvement and Ego Involvement.” Journal of Educational Psychology, 76 (October 1984), 909–19.
- Johnson, R. T., and others. “The Effects of Cooperative, Competitive and Individualistic Student Interaction Patterns on the Achievement and Attitudes of Students Learning the Golf Skill of Putting.” Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 55 (June 1984), 129–34.
- Mark, M. M., and others. “Casual Attributions of Winners and Losers in Individual Competitive Sports: Toward a Reformulation of the Self-Serving Bias.” Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, No. 2 (1984), 184–96.
- Norem-Hebeisen, A. A., and D. W. Johnson. “Relationship Between Cooperative, Competitive and Individualistic Attitudes and Differentiated Aspects of Self-Esteem.” Journal of Personality, 49 (December 1981), 415–26.
- Okebukola, P. A. “The Relative Effectiveness of Cooperative and Competitive Interaction Techniques in Strengthening Students' Performance in Science Classes.” Science Education, 69 (July 1985), 501–9.
- Owens, L., and J. Barns. “Relationships Between Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualized Learning Preferences and Students' Perceptions of Classroom Learning Atmosphere.” American Educational Research Journal, 19 (Summer 1982), 182–200.
- Skon, L., and others. “Cooperative Peer Interaction Versus Individual Competition and Individualistic Efforts: Effects on the Acquisition of Cognitive Reasoning Strategies.” Journal of Educational Psychology, 73 (Fall 1981), 83–92.
- Slavin, Robert E. Using Student Team Learning, 1980, John Hopkins Team Learning Project.
- Slavin, Robert E. Cooperative Learning, 1982, N.E.A.