NOTES
- The term African American is used in most cases throughout this paper, except when dealing with quotes, although that terminology was not in general use in 1968. Instead “Black,” and “Afro-American” and even “Negro,” were more commonly used then.
- Christopher C. De Santis, Langston Hughes and the Chicago Defender, (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 13.
- Dirk Johnson, “The Chicago Defender,” New York Times, May 27, 2009.
- Theodore Kornweibel Jr., “The Most Dangerous of All Negro Journals: Federal Efforts to Suppress the Chicago Defender During World War I,” American Journalism 11: 2 (Spring 1994), 257–69.
- Quoted by Stanley Nelson, producer/director, in The Black Press: Soldiers without Swords (San Francisco: California Newsreel, 1998), videocassette. Also see James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 172; and A Chance to Make Good: African-Americans, 1900–1929 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 150.
- Nelson, The Black Press.
- Alan D. DeSantis, “Selling the American Dream Myth to Black Southerners, The Chicago Defender and the Great Migration of 1915–1919,” Western Journal of Communication, 62, (4) (Fall 1988), 474–511.
- Roi Ottley, The Lonely Warrior: The Life and Times of Robert S. Abbott (Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1955), 160.
- Ibid., 15.
- See Davarian Baldwin, Chicago's New Negroes: Modernity, the Great Migration, & Black Urban Life (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2007), 38–9; and Carole Marks, Farewell, We're Good and Gone: The Great Black Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 35–44.
- Signed “A Reader,” from Lutcher, Louisiana, Journal of Negro History, vol. IV, 1919, 20.
- Ibid.
- See, for example, the previously mentioned work of Alan D. DeSantis, Kornweibel, Ottley, and Nelson.
- Brent Staples, “Citizen Sengstacke,” New York Times Magazine, Jan. 4, 1998.
- Grossman, Land of Hope, 172.
- Felicia G. Jones Ross and Joseph P. McKerns, “Depression in “The Promised Land’: The Chicago Defender Discourages Migration, 1929–1940,” American Journalism 21, no. 1 (Winter 2004): 55–73.
- Karen E. Pride, “Chicago Defender Celebrates 100 Years in Business,” Chicago Defender, May 5, 2005.
- Earnest L. Perry Jr., “A Common Purpose: The Negro Newspaper Publishers Association's Fight for Equality During World War II,” American Journalism 19, no. 2 (Spring 2002): 31–43.
- “President Truman Wipes Out Segregation in Armed Forces,” Chicago Defender, July 26, 1948; Harry S. Truman, “Executive Older 9980,” July 26, 1948, University of California, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/print.php?pid=78208, accessed Feb. 7, 2014.
- Alan D. DeSantis, “A Forgotten Leader: Robert S. Abbott and the Chicago Defender bam 1910–1920,” Journalism History 23, no. 1 (Spring 1997): 64.
- Earnest L. Perry Jr., Voice of Consciousness: The Negro Newspaper Publishers Association During World War II, (PhD diss., University of Missouri-Columbia, 1998), 1–22.
- DeSantis, “Selling the American Dream,” 475.
- Megan M. Everett, “Extra! Extra! Tracing the Chicago Defenders Campaign for African American Policewomen in the Early 20th Century,” Explorations: An Undergraduate Research Journal, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 26.
- A. L. Glenn Sr., History of the National Alliance of Postal Employees, 1913–1955 (Cleveland: Cadillac Press Co., 1957), 25.
- Jasmin K. Williams, “The Mouthpiece of 14 Million People, Dubbed the Black Hearst,” New York Amsterdam News, April 18, 2013.
- John N. Ingham, and Lynne B. Feldman, African-American Business Leaders, (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994), 18.
- Lolly Bowean, “Chicago Defender Goes Back to Bronzeville,” Chicago Defender, May 27, 2009.
- Ibid.
- Quoted by Nelson in The Black Press.
- Adam Green, Selling the Race: Culture, Community, and Black Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 201.
- The words liberal and conservative have different meanings in different times, and exact definitions are hard to come by. But in 1968 if a person supported presidential candidates Eugene McCarthy or Robert Kennedy, for instance, both progressive Democrats, then one would probably be labeled a liberal. Conversely, those who supported Richard Nixon and wanted to maintain the status quo and spoke passionately about the need for law and order would be labeled conservative.
- Brian Thornton and Bill Cassidy, “Black Newspapers in 1968 Offer Panthers Little Support,” Newspaper Research Journal, 29, no. 1 (Winter 2008): 303–20.
- “Negro Republicans,” Chicago Defender, July 9, 1968.
- Charles A. Simmons, The African-American Press: A History of News Coverage During National Crisis with Special Reference to Four Black Newspapers, 1827–1965 (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co. 1998), 165.
- Ibid.
- Nelson, The Black Press.
- Including the previously mentioned Ottley, Lonely Warrior, and Myiti Sengstacke Rice, The Chicago Defender (Mount Pleasant, S.C.: Arcadia Publishing, 2012). Also see Kornweibel, “The Most Dangerous,” 168; Ella T. Strother, “The Black Image in the Chicago Defender, 1905–1975,” Journalism History 4, no. 4 (Fall 1977–78): 137–41, 156; Mary E. Stovall, “The Chicago Defender in the Progressive Era,” Illinois Historical Journal 83 (Fall, 1990): 162; and Charlesetta Maria Ellis, “Robert S. Abbotts Response to Education for African Americans via the Chicago Defender, 1909–1940,” (PhD diss., Loyola University of Chicago, 1994).
- Renee Romano and Raiford Lee, eds., The Civil Rights Movement in American Memory (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2006).
- Kristen Hoerl, “Mississippi's Social Transformation in Public Memories of the Trial Against Byron de la Beckwith for the Murder of Medgar Evers,” Western Journal of Communication 72, no. 1 (January-March 2008): 62–82.
- Brian Thornton, “Pleading Their Own Cause: Letters to the Editor and Editorials in 10 African-American Newspapers in 1929–1930,” Journalism History 32, no. 3 (Fall 2006): 168–79.
- W. Joseph Campbell, The Year That Defined American Journalism: 1897 and the Clash of Paradigms (New York: Roudedge, 2006), xix.
- David G. McCullough, 1776 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2005).
- William A. Klingaman, 1929: The Year of the Great Crash (New York: Harper & Row, 1989).
- Louis E Masur, 1831, Year of the Eclipse (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001).
- Kenneth M. Stampp, America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
- Tom Lutz, American Nervousness, 1903: An Anecdotal History (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990).
- Margaret Olwen Macmillan, Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World (New York: Random House, 2002).
- Campbell, 1897, xix.
- Lawrence D. Bobo, “Are Black Americans Screwed?” The Root, March 5, 2013, 23.
- David Paul Nord, “Reading the Newspaper: Strategies and Politics of Reader Response: Chicago, 1912–1917,” Journal of Communication 45 no. 3 (Summer 1995): 66–93.
- Karin Wahl-Jorgensen, Journalists and the Public: Newsroom Culture, Letters to the Editor and Democracy (Cresskill, N.J.: Hampton Press, 2007), 4, 5.
- Philip Jenkins, Decade of Nightmares: The End of the Sixties and the Making of Eighties America (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2006), 3. “The term “68ism” is used extensively in a recent best-selling novel by Kurt Andersen, True Believers (New York: Random House, 2012).
- Thomas Maier, Dr. Spock: An American Lift (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1998).
- Tieren Williams, The Prague Spring and Its Aftermath: Czechoslovak Politics, 1968–1970 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 67.
- See Mark Kurlansky, 1968: The Year That Rocked the World (New York: Ballantine Books, 2006), 112.
- Clay Risen, A Nation on Fire: America in the Wake of the King Assassination (Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons), 12.
- Denise Kersten Wills, “People Were Out of Control: Remembering the 1968 Riots,” Washingtonian, April 1, 2008, B1.
- Jonathan Bean, “Burn, Baby, Bum: Small Business in the Urban Riots of the 1960s,” The Independent Review 5, no. 2 (Fall 2000): 165–87.
- Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980).
- Carl Bernstein, A Woman in Charge: The Life of Hillary Rodham Clinton (New York: Vintage Books, 2008), 63–70; and Gail Sheehy, Hillary's Choice, New York: Random House, 1999), 54.
- See Mark Ray Schmidt, ed., The 1970s (San Diego: Green Haven Press, 2000), 241.
- Peter N. Carroll, It Seemed like Nothing Happened: America in the 1970s (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1982), x.
- Bruce J. Schulman, The Seventies: The Great Shift in American Culture, Society and Politics (New York: The Free Press, 2001), 16.
- Ibid., 14.
- Robert Hariman and John Lucaites, “Public Identity and Collective Memory in U.S. Iconic Photography: The Image of Accidental Napalm,” Critical Studies in Mass Communication 20, no. 1 (March 2003): 35–66.
- Edward D. Berkowitz, Something Happened: A Political and Cultural Overview of the Seventies (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 5, 6.
- Schulman, The Seventies, xvi.
- Dominick Sandbrook, Mad as Hell: The Crisis of the 1970s and the Rise of the Populist Right (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011), xi.
- Todd Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York; London: Bantam, 1993), 242.
- Joshua Bloom and Waldo E. Martin Jr., Black against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panther Party (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013), 118. Also see “Carmichael Urges Arms for Negroes,” Jackson Daily News, April 5, 1968.
- “Black Clergy's Advice,” Chicago Defender, Oct. 15, 1968.
- “Black Nation for Blacks,” Chicago Defender, Sept. 5, 1968.
- “Olympic Black Power,” Chicago Defender, Oct. 21, 1968.
- “End Juvenile Crime,” Chicago Defender, April 30, 1968.
- The official tide of the Commission was the National Advisory Committee on Civil Disorders. See Thomas J. Hrach, “An Incitement to Riot,” Journalism History, 37, no. 3 (Fall 2011): 164.
- “Riot Panel Tells the Truth,” Chicago Defender, March 5, 1968.
- “The Kerner Panel,” Chicago Defender, March 11, 1968.
- “They Bury Him Today,” Chicago Defender, April 9, 1968.
- “A Man of Peace,” Chicago Defender,” April 10, 1968.
- “Free at Last,” Chicago Defender, April 11, 1968.
- “The Revolting Students,” Chicago Defender, May 6, 1968.
- “What Do We Want,” Chicago Defender, Nov. 25, 1968.
- “Teaching Black History,” Chicago Defender, Oct. 11, 1968.
- “Black Power Advocates,” Chicago Defender, Nov.26, 1968.
- For purposes of this research these letters were labeled “other,” since they did not fit into one single or repeating category.
- “Help Provident: Black Power Job,” Chicago Defender, May 9, 1968.
- “Separatism Foe,” Chicago Defender, March 28, 1968.
- See the New York Amsterdam News, April 1968, with dozens of letters about King printed along with the Los Angeles Sentinel.
- “Time for Sorrow,” Chicago Defender, May 4, 1968.
- “Law and Order,” Chicago Defender, June 15 1968.
- “Light Negroes Want Equality,” Chicago Defender, Dec. 19, 1968.
- “Gun Law Foe,” Chicago Defender, July 16, 1968.
- “Point of Pride,” Chicago Defender, Sept. 23, 1968.
- “Black Power at Olympics,” Chicago Defender, Dec. 26, 1968.
- Mary Mitchell, “Cosby Gave It to Us Straight,” Chicago Sun-Times, June 3, 2004.
- Earnest L. Perry Jr., “‘To Plead Our Cause’ and Make a Profit: The Competitive Environment of the African American Press,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Chicago, Aug. 9, 2012.
- Former Defender reporter Vernon Jarrett was quoted as saying Abbott and his nephew loved many trapping of wealth, especially their fancy cars, even though Abbott never drove and Sengstacke rarely did. See Nelson, The Black Press.
- “How Race Is Lived in America,” New York Times, June 4–7, July 3–23, and July 19, 2000. Eventually the series was reprinted as a book, How Race Is Lived in America: Pulling Together, Pulling Apart (New York: Henry Holt and Co., Times Books), 2001.
- David L. Johnson, book review, Curled Up with a Good Book, http://www.curledup.com/howrace.htm, accessed Feb. 7, 2014.
- Editor's Note, “How Race Is Lived in America,” New York Times, June 4, 2001.
- Lloyd Chiasson Jr., The Press in Times of Crisis (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1995), iii.
- Christopher C. De Sands, Langston Hughes and the Chicago Defender, 14.