NOTES
- Kingston Chronicle and Gazette, Sept. 20, 1834.
- Terence Ball, Transforming Political Discourse: Political Theory and Critical Conceptual History (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988), 26.
- Susan E. Scarrow, “The Nineteenth-century Origins of Modern Political Parties: The Unwanted Emergence of Party-based Politics,” in Handbook of Party Politics, ed. Richard S. Katz and William J. Crotty (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications Ltd., 2005), 17.
- William Patterson, “An Enquiry into the State of the Union of Great Britain… By the Wednesday's Club in Friday-street,” in Factions No More: Attitudes to Party in Government and Opposition in Eighteenth-century England, ed. J.A.W. Gunn (London: F. Cass, 1972), 82; Matthew Tindal, “The Defection Consider'd, and The Designs of Those Who Divided the Friends of the Government, Set in a True Light,” in ibid., 56; and Henry Saint John Viscount Bolingbroke, “Letters on the Spirit of Patriotism,” in ibid., 30.
- Duncan Koerber, “The Role of the Agent in Partisan Communication Networks of Upper Canadian Newspapers,” Journal of Canadian Studies 45, no. 3 (2011): 137–65.
- Douglas McCalla, Planting the Province: The Economic History of Upper Canada, 1784–1870 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993), 249.
- Kevin G. Barnhurst and John Nerone, The Form of News: A History (New York: Guilford Press, 2001), 13. Barnhurst and Nerone describe four basic formations governing news from colonial times to the present: printerly (Revolutionary era and early republic), partisan, Victorian, and modern.
- Chris Raible, The Power of the Press: The Story of Early Canadian Printers and Publishers (Toronto: James Lorimer, 2007).
- McCalla, Planting the Province, 111.
- Duncan Koerber, “Style over Substance: Newspaper Coverage of Early Election Campaigns in Canada, 1820–1841,” Canadian Journal of Communication 36, no. 3 (2011): 435–53.
- Jeffrey L. McNairn, The Capacity to Judge: Public Opinion and Deliberative Democracy in Upper Canada, 1791–1854 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000), 130.
- Ibid., 129.
- Paul Romney, Mr. Attorney: The Attorney General for Ontario in Court, Cabinet, Legislature, 1791–1899 (Toronto: published for the Osgoode Society by University of Toronto, 1986), 36.
- Graeme H. Patterson, “Studies in Elections and Public Opinion in Upper Canada” (PhD diss., University of Toronto, 1969), 84.
- Gerald M. Craig, Upper Canada: The Formative Years, 1784–1841 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1963), 106.
- Jane Errington, The Lion, the Eagle, and Upper Canada: A Developing Colonial Ideology (Kingston, Ont.: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994), 94.
- J.K. Johnson, Becoming Prominent: Regional Leadership in Upper Canada, 1791–1841 (Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1989), 139–44.
- Koerber, “Style over Substance.”
- Koerber, “The Role of the Agent in Partisan Communication Networks.”
- Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power, 242.
- Paul Rutherford, A Victorian Authority: The Daily Press in Late Nineteenth-century Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1982), 8.
- John Nerone, “The Future of Communication History,” Critical Studies in Media Communication 23, no. 3 (2006): 259.
- Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press; Polity Press, 1989).
- Nancy Fraser, “Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy,” in Habermas and the Public Sphere, ed. Craig Calhoun (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990), 109–42.
- Ibid., 112.
- Isabelle Lehuu, Carnival on the Page: Popular Print Media in Antebellum America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 29.
- John B. Thompson, Media and Modernity: A Social Theory of the Media (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995), 247–48.
- Carol Wilton, Popular Politics and Political Culture in Upper Canada, 1800–1850 (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2000), 223.
- Jeffrey L. McNairn, The Capacity to Judge: Public Opinion and Deliberative Democracy in Upper Canada, 1791–1854 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000), 415.
- Ibid., 171.
- Ibid.
- Wilton, Popular Politics, 223; Craig, Formative Years, 106, 200; and McNairn, Capacity to Judge, 426.
- David Paul Nord, Communities of Journalism: A History of American Newspapers and Their Readers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001), 83.
- Ibid.
- Romney, Mr. Attorney, 230.
- McNairn, Capacity to Judge, 237.
- An examination of every available Upper Canadian newspaper microfilm between 1828 and 1841 was done to discover which ones contained complete runs during each election period. To be systematic, an attempt was made to select three newspapers with complete runs on each “side” of the political divide in each election between 1828 and 1841. However, as this examination progressed, it was clear that there were not enough complete runs to satisfy this requirement exactly in every election period. Microfilm collections were found that satisfied this requirement for the 1828, 1834 and 1841 elections. However, for the 1830 and 1836 elections, only five newspapers with complete runs could be found (only two complete conservative newspapers exist on microfilm for the 1830 election, and only two complete reform newspapers exist on microfilm for the 1836 election).
- Canadian Freeman, Oct. 7, 1830; Canadian Freeman, Oct. 21, 1830; Cobourg Star, June 22, 1836; and Bathurst Courier, Feb. 5, 1841.
- Cobourg Star, June 1, 1836.
- Patriot, Feb. 12, 1841.
- Patriot, Feb. 16, 1841.
- Canadian Correspondent, Sept. 27, 1834.
- Cobourg Star, June 15, 1836.
- Koerber, “Style over Substance,” 446.
- Brockville Gazette, Oct. 9, 1830.
- Colonial Advocate, Oct. 14, 1830; Brockville Recorder, Sept. 28, 1830; Patriot, Sept. 26, 1834; and British Whig, Oct. 7, 1834.
- British Whig, Oct. 7, 1834.
- Kingston Chronicle and Gazette, Oct. 4, 1834.
- Brockville Gazette, Sept. 18, 1830; and Patriot, Sept. 2, 1834.
- Koerber, “Style over Substance,” 445–46.
- Duncan Koerber, “Political Operatives and Administrative Workers: The Newspaper Agents of Mackenzie's Gazette, 1838–1840,” Journalism History 36, no. 3 (2010): 160–68.
- Brockville Recorder, Oct. 17, 1834; Cobourg Star, Feb. 3, 1841; and Patriot, Feb. 19, March 5 and 26, 1841.
- Cobourg Star, March 17, 1841; this sentiment is found as well in the Colonial Advocate, June 26, 1828.
- Cobourg Star, March 17, 1841.
- Gore Gazette, Aug. 16, 1828.
- Patriot, June 14, 1836.
- Kingston Chronicle and Gazette, Sept. 20, 1834; and Kingston Chronicle and Gazette, June 18, 1836.
- Canadian Correspondent, Oct. 4, 1834.
- Gore Gazette, August 16, 1828.
- Correspondent and Advocate, June 15, 1836.
- Norman Fairclough, Media Discourse (London: Edward Arnold, 1995), 179.
- Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power, 1st ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006), 105.
- David E. Green, Shaping Political Consciousness: The Language of Politics in America from McKinley to Reagan (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987), 2.
- Philip Elliott, “Press Performance as Political Ritual,” in The Sociology of Journalism and the Press, ed. Harry Christian (Keele, Staffordshire: University of Keele, 1980), 142.
- Ibid., 162.
- Ibid.
- Gerd Baumann, “Ritual Implicates ‘Others’: Rereading Durkheim in a Plural Society,” in Understanding Rituals, ed. Daniel de Coppet (London: Routledge, 1993), 99.
- Duncan Koerber, “Early Political Parties as Mediated Communities,” Media History 19, no. 2 (2013): 125–38.
- Upper Canada Gazette, May 11, 1820.
- Koerber, “Style over Substance,” 443–7.
- Colonial Advocate, Sept. 30, 1830.
- Brockville Recorder, Oct. 12, 1830.
- Canadian Correspondent, Oct. 11, 1834.
- Toronto Mirror, March 12, 1841.
- Toronto Mirror, March 20, 1841.
- Cobourg Star, May 25, 1836.
- Richard Hofstadter, The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States, 1780–1840 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 23.
- Capel Lofft, “An Argument on the Nature and Party and Faction,” in Factions No More, ed. J.A.W. Gunn, 218.
- J.A.W. Gunn, ed., “The Country Journal: Or the Craftsman,” in Factions No More, 104; J.A.W. Gunn, ed., “The Sentiments of a Tory in Respect to a Late Important Transaction and in Regard to the Present Situation of Affairs,” in ibid., 109; and J.A.W. Gunn, ed., “The Detector Detected: Or, the Danger to Which Our Constitution Now Lies Exposed, Set in a True and Manifest Light,” in ibid., 146.
- David Hume, “Of Parties in General,” in ibid., 135.
- Ibid., 136.
- Brockville Recorder, Sept. 26, 1834.
- Party is not employed here in the modern sense; the term party was used inconsistently, often meaning factional political organizations.
- Kingston Chronicle and Gazette, June 22, 1836.
- Brockville Recorder, Sept. 12, 1834.
- Brockville Recorder, Sept. 26, 1834.
- Brockville Recorder, Sept. 12, 1834.
- Cobourg Star, Feb. 24, 1841.
- Aileen Dunham, Political Unrest in Upper Canada, 1815–1836 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1963), 58.
- Ibid., 57; and Carol Wilton, “Lawless Law: Conservative Political Violence in Upper Canada, 1818–41,” Law and History Review 13, no. 1(Spring 1995): 116.
- Brockville Gazette, Oct. 9, 1830; and Colonial Advocate, Oct. 14, 1830.
- Colonial Advocate, Oct. 7, 1830.
- Kingston Chronicle and Gazette, March 20, 1841.
- John L. Brooke, To Be “Read by the Whole People”: Press, Party and Public Sphere in the United States, 1789–1840 (Worcester, Mass.: American Antiquarian Society, 2003), 116.
- Eley, “Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures: Placing Habermas in the Nineteenth Century,” 326ations, Publics, and Political Cultures: Placing Habermas in the Nineteenth Century,” 326” 326.
- Fraser, “Rethinking the Public Sphere,” 117.
- Quoted in Nick Couldry, Media Rituals: A Critical Approach (London: Routledge, 2003), 44.
- Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power, 51.
- Ibid., 106.
- Fowler, Language in the News, 122.
- Ibid., 166.
- Ibid., 167.
- Ibid., 49.
- Duncan Koerber, “Communication as Mobilization: The Development of Newspaper-based Political Parties in Upper Canada, 1820–1841” (Ph.D. diss., York University, 2009).
- Barnhurst and Nerone, The Form of News, 46–47.
- Peter Way, “Street Politics: Orangemen, Tories and the 1841 Election Riot in Toronto,” British Journal of Canadian Studies 6, no. 2 (1991): 275–303.